4.1

• Describe how sperm leave the testes.

• Explain what happens in the vas deferens.

• Explain the structure of the ovaries and uterus.

• Describe spermatogenesis.

• Describe sperm structure.

• Describe oogenesis.

• Explain Graafian follicle structure.

• Explain fertilisation.

• Explain implantation.

• Describe the placenta and umbilical cord structure.

  • Explain their roles.

• Explain the menstrual cycle.

• Describe and explain the uses of the amnion.

• Explain hormones during pregnancy.

• Explain hormones during birth.

4.2

• Describe the structure of a flower.

• Explain different types of pollination, and some adaptational differences.

• Compare cross and self pollination.

• Explain adaptations for cross pollination.

• Explain anther structure and pollen release.

• Explain pollen grain structure and development.

• Explain ovule structure.

• Explain female gamete development.

• Explain pollen tube development.

• Explain double fertilisation.

• Explain seed and fruit development.

• Compare dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

• Explain types of seed dispersal.

• Describe requirements for germination.

• Explain dicotyledon germination.

• Explain monocotyledon germination.

4.3

• Define these terms:

• Describe monohybrid inheritance, including a Punnett square.

• Describe the 2 possibilities of no single dominant allele.

• Describe dihybrid inheritance, including a dihybrid cross of two homozygous genotypes and Mendelian ratios.

• Describe linkage including:

  • Crossing over.

• Describe 2 ways plants determine sex, and a way snails can.

• Describe 4 ways this can be controlled.

• Explain how this is determined in humans, including the difference between female and male chromosomes.

• Explain gene sex linkage, including haemophilia.

• Define mutations.

• Explain 2 ways mutation rates can increase.

• Explain 4 types of mutations, including:

  • 6 gene/point mutations, and sickle cell anemia.

  • Chromosome mutations.

  • Aneuploidy, and Down’s syndrome.

  • 3 types of polyploidy.

• Explain tumour suppressor genes, including TP53.

• Explain oncogenes, and two ways they are activated.

• Explain the 3 types of epigenetic modifications.

• Explain 3 possible consequences.

4.4

• Contrast discontinuous and continuous variation.

• Describe and give examples of selection pressure.

• Name and explain the three types of natural selection.

• Describe genetic drift and the founder and bottleneck effect.

• List the conditions and formula of the Hardy-Weinberg principle.

• Name and describe the 5 types of prezygotic isolation.

• Name and describe the 3 types of postzygotic isolation.

• List Darwin’s 3 observations.

• Explain the steps of evolution.

• Name the two types of evolutionary products.

4.5

• Describe the two genome projects.

  • Describe ethical and moral concerns.

• Explain how genetic research can be applied to malaria treatment.

• Explain the steps of DNA fingerprinting, including:

  • PCR chain reaction and it’s limitations.

  • Gel electrophoresis.

  • Where this is used.

  • Pros vs cons.

• Define genetic engineering and the 5 steps, including:

  • Locating the gene.

  • Isolating the gene via restriction endonuclease and reverse transcriptase.

  • Making a recombinant plasmid.

  • Transfer into host cell.

  • Genetic markers.

  • Pros and cons.

• Describe 4 methods of introducing a novel gene into plants, including A. tumefaciens.

• Explain examples of GM crops:

  • ‘Roundup ready‘ soya beans.

  • Bt tomatoes.

  • Antisense tomatoes.

  • Benefits and negatives.

  • Consequences.

• Explain genetic screening.

• Explain gene therapy, including the 2 types.

  • Describe DMD treatment.

• Explain 4 uses of genomics.

• Describe tissue engineering.

  • Describe 4 types of cells for tissue engineering.

  • Describe scaffolds.

  • Explain tissue culturing.

• Explain 3 types of stem cells.

  • Describe the potential of stem cells.

  • Contrast adult and embryonic stem cells.

  • Explain pros and cons.

  • Explain the ethics of stem cell research.

Option

• Define the following terms:

• Describe the cause, transmission, infection, prevention and treatment of cholera.

• Describe the cause, transmission, infection, prevention and treatment of tuberculosis.

• Describe the cause, transmission, infection and prevention of smallpox.

• Describe the cause, transmission, infection, prevention and antigenic types of influenza.

• Describe the cause, transmission, infection, prevention and treatment of malaria.

• Describe the two possible cycles of a virus.

• Describe the 4 ways bacteria can be pathogenic.

• Explain the formation of the peptidoglycan cell wall, and why this causes positive and negative results on the Gram stain test.

• Describe penicillin production, categories and action.

• Describe tetracycline production, categories and action.

• Explain 2 sources of antibiotic resistant alleles.

  • Give an example of resistance against penicillin and tetracycline.

  • Explain issues and how to prevent bacterial resistance.

• Describe the 4 methods of the innate immune system.

• Name the 2 components of adaptive immune system:

  • Explain the humoral response; the formation and 2 types of B lymphocytes.

    • Explain the shape and function of an antibody.

  • Explain the cell mediated response; the formation and the types of T lymphocytes.

    • Explain the role of cytokines.

• Explain the primary and secondary immune responses, and compare them.

• Explain active immunity.

  • Name the 4 types of vaccines.

  • Describe boosters.

• Describe when passive immunity occurs or is needed, and why it is short lived.

• Explain the 2 factors involved in vaccine effectiveness.

  • Describe the effectiveness of vaccines.

  • Explain the 2 key reasons people do not get vaccinated.

  • Explain the issues with cost effectiveness, mandates and side effects of vaccines.