PSY 238 Exam 2

1. Physical Growth and Development in Infancy

Patterns of Growth

  • Cephalocaudal pattern: Growth starts at the head and moves downward.

  • Proximodistal pattern: Growth starts at the center and moves outward to limbs.

Height & Weight

  • Average newborn: 20 inches, 7.6 pounds.

  • Growth rate: 1 inch per month in the first year.

  • By 2 years: 26-32 pounds, 32-35 inches.

  • Growth is episodic, occurring in spurts.


2. Brain Development

Basic Brain Structures

  • Forebrain: Includes cerebral cortex, responsible for higher thinking.

  • Four Lobes:

    • Frontal: Voluntary movement, thinking, personality.

    • Occipital: Vision.

    • Temporal: Hearing, language, memory.

    • Parietal: Spatial location, attention, motor control.

Neural Development

  • Myelination: Fatty coating on axons that speeds up transmission.

  • Synaptic connections: "Use it or lose it" principle—unused connections are pruned.

Early Experience & Plasticity

  • Deprived environments (e.g., Romanian orphanages) can reduce brain activity.

  • Brain plasticity: The ability to reorganize and recover from damage.

  • Example: Michael Rehbein, who lost his left hemisphere, but his right hemisphere adapted.


3. Sleep in Infancy

  • Newborns sleep ~18 hours/day.

  • Sleep is important for brain plasticity and memory consolidation.

  • SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome):

    • Higher risk for low birth weight infants, passive smokers, and bed-sharers.

    • Protective factors: Sleeping on the back, using a pacifier, and sleeping in a room with a fan.


4. Nutrition

  • Infants need 50 calories per pound per day.

  • Breastfeeding Benefits:

    • For baby: Fewer infections, lower SIDS risk, lower obesity and diabetes risk.

    • For mother: Lower breast and ovarian cancer risk, lower type 2 diabetes risk.

  • Malnutrition: Can lead to cognitive deficits, attention problems, and long-term developmental issues.


5. Motor Development

Dynamic Systems Theory

  • Motor development is not passive—infants actively develop motor skills by exploring.

  • Development depends on:

    • Nervous system maturation

    • Body’s physical properties

    • Motivation and environmental support

Reflexes

  • Rooting reflex: Infant turns head toward touch on cheek.

  • Sucking reflex: Automatic sucking when object placed in mouth.

  • Moro reflex: Startle reflex—flinging out arms and legs.

  • Grasping reflex: Infant tightly grasps anything in palm.

Gross Motor Skills (Large Muscles)

  • 1st Year Milestones:

    • 2-4 months: Lifts head

    • 4-6 months: Rolls over, supports weight on legs

    • 6-8 months: Sits without support

    • 8-10 months: Crawls

    • 10-12 months: Stands and walks with support

  • By 2 years: Can walk quickly, run, balance, kick and throw a ball.

Fine Motor Skills (Small Muscles)

  • Palmer grasp: Grabbing with the whole hand.

  • Pincer grip: Using thumb and forefinger to grab small objects.


6. Sensory & Perceptual Development

Sensation vs. Perception

  • Sensation: Receiving stimuli through eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose.

  • Perception: Interpreting what is sensed.

Vision

  • At birth: Poor vision, can't see far.

  • By 6 months: 20/40 vision.

  • Infants prefer faces (especially attractive faces).

Depth Perception

  • "Visual Cliff" experiment: Shows that infants can perceive depth.

Other Senses

  • Hearing: Babies can hear in the womb.

  • Touch & Pain: Newborns can feel pain.

  • Smell & Taste: Infants can differentiate odors and prefer sweet tastes.

Intermodal Perception

  • Ability to combine multiple senses (e.g., matching a voice to a face).

  • Develops around 6 months.


7. Nature vs. Nurture in Perceptual Development

  • Nativists: Perception is innate.

  • Empiricists: Perception is learned through experience.

  • Modern view: Both nature and nurture shape perception.

CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

1. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development

  • Cognitive development occurs in stages; infants actively construct their understanding of the world.

Key Concepts in Piaget’s Theory

  • Schemes: Mental structures to organize knowledge.

    • Behavioral schemes (physical activities in infancy).

    • Mental schemes (thought-based in later development).

  • Assimilation: Using existing schemes to understand new information.

    • Example: A child calls a zebra a "horse" because it fits their horse scheme.

  • Accommodation: Adjusting schemes for new information.

    • Example: Learning that zebras and horses are different animals.

  • Organization: Combining simple schemes into complex ones.

  • Equilibration: Shifting from one cognitive stage to the next due to disequilibrium (cognitive conflict).


2. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 Years)

Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Substages of Sensorimotor Development

  1. Simple Reflexes (0-1 month)

    • Reflexive behaviors dominate (e.g., sucking, grasping).

  2. First Habits & Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

    • Habits: Reflex-based actions occur without stimuli (e.g., sucking thumb for comfort).

    • Primary Circular Reactions: Repeating actions focused on own body.

  3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

    • More object-oriented (e.g., shaking a rattle repeatedly for the sound).

  4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months)

    • Intentional actions; using multiple schemes together (e.g., pushing a toy aside to grab another).

  5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

    • Experimenting to see results (e.g., dropping objects from different heights).

  6. Internalization of Schemes (18-24 months)

    • Mental representation develops.

    • Example: A child can remember how to throw a tantrum they saw another child do earlier.

Key Achievement: Object Permanence

  • Definition: Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.

  • Develops between 8-12 months.

  • Piaget’s Test: Hiding a toy → Younger infants won’t search for it.


3. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

  • Criticism: Infants develop abilities earlier than Piaget suggested.

  • A-not-B Error: Babies look for an object in its old hiding place (A) instead of the new one (B).

  • Core Knowledge Approach: Babies are born with domain-specific innate knowledge (e.g., object permanence may be innate).


4. Learning, Attention, Memory, and Conceptualization

Learning

  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner):

    • Behaviors followed by rewards are repeated.

    • Example: Kicking moves a mobile → Baby keeps kicking.

Attention

  • Habituation: Decreased response after repeated exposure.

    • Example: A baby stops looking at a toy they’ve seen too often.

  • Dishabituation: Renewed interest when a stimulus changes.

    • Example: A new toy grabs the baby’s attention.

  • Joint Attention (9-12 months):

    • Two people focus on the same object/event.

    • Example: A baby follows an adult’s gaze to a toy.

Memory

  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts/events (e.g., remembering a trip).

  • Infantile Amnesia: No recall of experiences before age 3.

Imitation

  • Deferred Imitation: Copying behavior hours/days later.

    • Example: A baby sees another baby clap and does it later.

Concept Formation & Categorization

  • Concepts: Grouping objects/events mentally.

  • Perceptual Categorization (3-4 months): Based on appearance.

    • Example: Grouping birds vs. airplanes by shape.

  • Conceptual Categorization (later): Based on meaning.

    • Example: Grouping cats & dogs as "animals" instead of by shape.


5. Language Development

What is Language?

  • Phonology: Sounds of language.

  • Morphology: Units of meaning (e.g., "ing").

  • Syntax: Sentence structure.

  • Semantics: Word meanings.

  • Pragmatics: Social use of language.

Stages of Language Development

  1. Crying (From birth): Signals distress.

  2. Cooing (2-4 months): Vowel sounds ("ooo," "ahh").

  3. Babbling (4-6 months): Consonant-vowel sounds ("ba-ba," "da-da").

  4. Gestures (7-15 months): Pointing, showing.

  5. First Words (~12 months):

    • Receptive vocabulary (understanding) > Spoken vocabulary.

    • Vocabulary spurt (~18 months): Rapid word learning.

  6. Two-Word Utterances (~18-24 months):

    • Examples: "More milk," "Mama go".

    • Telegraphic speech: Omitting unnecessary words ("Want cookie").

Common Language Errors

  • Overextension: Using one word too broadly (e.g., calling all animals "dog").

  • Underextension: Using one word too narrowly (e.g., calling only the family’s dog "dog").


6. Biological & Environmental Influences on Language

Biological Influences

  • Broca’s Area (Left frontal lobe): Speech production.

  • Wernicke’s Area (Left temporal lobe): Language comprehension.

  • Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD):

    • Theoretical brain structure enabling language learning.

Environmental Influences

  • Higher parental talking → Faster vocabulary growth.

  • Child-Directed Speech (Infant-Directed Speech):

    • High-pitched, exaggerated tone that helps infants learn.

  • Techniques to Improve Language Learning:

    • Recasting: Correcting a child’s sentence into a proper one.

    • Expanding: Adding details to a child’s sentence.

    • Labeling: Naming objects the child is interested in.

The Interactionist View

  • Language develops through both biology & experience.


Key Takeaways for Your Exam

  • Understand Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage & Object Permanence.

  • Know the difference between assimilation & accommodation.

  • Be familiar with learning concepts (operant conditioning, attention, memory, imitation, categorization).

  • Know the stages of language development & key errors (overextension, underextension).

  • Understand biological (Broca’s & Wernicke’s areas, LAD) & environmental influences on language.

CHAPTER 6: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

1. Emotional Development

  • Emotions: Feelings that reflect pleasantness/unpleasantness of experiences.

  • Importance: Helps with communication & behavioral organization.

Types of Emotions

  • Primary emotions (early-emerging, in humans & animals):

    • Joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust.

  • Self-conscious emotions (require self-awareness):

    • Jealousy, empathy, embarrassment.

Emotional Expression in Infancy

  • Crying (first form of communication):

    • Basic cry: Rhythmic, brief silence.

    • Anger cry: More forceful.

    • Pain cry: Loud, sudden cry, followed by breath-holding.

  • Smiling:

    • Reflexive smile (not due to external stimuli, seen in sleep).

    • Social smile (response to a face, appears ~2 months).

  • Fear:

    • Stranger anxiety (peaks at 6-9 months).

    • Separation protest (crying when caregiver leaves).

Emotion Regulation & Coping

  • Infants learn to minimize emotional reactions.

  • Caregivers help regulate emotions (soothing = trust & attachment).

  • Depressed mothers interact less, making regulation harder for infants.


2. Temperament

  • Definition: Individual differences in emotional & behavioral responses.

Temperament Classifications

  1. Chess & Thomas’ Categories:

    • Easy child: Positive mood, adapts easily.

    • Difficult child: Negative, irregular routines, dislikes change.

    • Slow-to-warm-up child: Low activity, negative, adjusts slowly.

  2. Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition:

    • Inhibited children: Shy, subdued, fearful of new situations.

    • Uninhibited children: Sociable, bold.

  3. Rothbart & Bates' Model:

    • Extraversion/Surgency: Active, happy, seeks stimulation.

    • Negative Affectivity: Easily distressed, fearful, sad.

    • Effortful Control: Self-regulation, ability to focus & shift attention.

Biological & Environmental Influences on Temperament

  • Genetics influence temperament, but it changes with experience.

  • Cultural differences:

    • Chinese parents value inhibited, shy behavior.

    • North American parents encourage bold, independent behavior.

Goodness of Fit

  • Match between child’s temperament & environment = better outcomes.


3. Personality Development

Erikson’s Stages

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year):

    • If caregivers are responsive & caring, infants develop trust.

    • If neglected, infants develop mistrust.

  2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-2 years):

    • Infants strive for independence.

    • Overly restrictive parentsshame & doubt instead of confidence.

Development of Self

  • Self-recognition (mirror test) appears around 18 months.

  • By 2 years, most toddlers recognize themselves.


4. Social Orientation & Understanding

  • Face-to-face play (2-3 months): Babies respond to facial expressions & voices.

  • By 1 year: Understand social intentions & make appropriate responses.

  • Social referencing: Infants "read" caregivers’ emotional cues to react properly.


5. Attachment

  • Definition: Emotional bond between infant & caregiver.

Theories of Attachment

  • Freud: Attachment based on feeding.

  • Harlow: Contact comfort is more important than food (monkey experiment).

  • Erikson: Trust develops from consistent care.

Bowlby’s Attachment Stages

  1. (0-2 months): Babies attach to any human.

  2. (2-7 months): Attachment focuses on primary caregiver.

  3. (7-24 months): Specific attachments form.

  4. (2 years+): Infants become aware of others' emotions & goals.

Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (Attachment Styles)

  • Secure Attachment:

    • Infant uses caregiver as a secure base.

    • Upset when parent leaves, happy when they return.

  • Insecure-Avoidant:

    • Avoids caregiver, little distress when they leave.

  • Insecure-Resistant:

    • Clings to caregiver, resists comfort.

  • Insecure-Disorganized:

    • Confused, fearful, mix of avoidance & resistance.

Factors Influencing Attachment

  • Sensitive caregivers → Securely attached infants.

  • Neglectful/inconsistent caregivers → Insecure attachment.

  • Abuse/neglect → Disorganized attachment.


6. Social Contexts of Development

Family

  • Family system: Interactions between marital relationship, parenting, and child development.

  • Reciprocal socialization: Parents & children influence each other.

  • Scaffolding: Parents help infants take turns in interactions.

Mother vs. Father Roles

  • Mothers: Focus on child care (feeding, bathing, changing diapers).

  • Fathers: More play-focused interactions.

  • Fathers can be just as sensitive caregivers as mothers.


7. Child Care & Societal Influences

  • Many infants have multiple caregivers.

  • Parental leave policies vary by country:

    • Europe: ~16 weeks paid leave.

    • U.S.: 12 weeks unpaid leave.

Effects of Child Care

  • High-quality child care: Better cognitive & social skills.

  • Low-quality child care: Behavioral & developmental issues.

  • Factors affecting quality: Caregiver-to-child ratio, safety, stimulation.

Parenting Strategies for Child Care

  1. Monitor child’s development.

  2. Choose quality child care.

  3. Interact & engage at home to supplement child care.


Key Takeaways for Your Exam

  • Know key emotional developments (primary vs. self-conscious emotions, stranger anxiety, social smile, crying types).

  • Understand temperament classifications (Easy, Difficult, Slow-to-Warm-Up, Rothbart’s model).

  • Recognize Erikson’s stages (Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt).

  • Memorize Bowlby’s attachment stages & Ainsworth’s attachment styles.

  • Know how caregiving styles influence attachment.

  • Understand family roles, reciprocal socialization, & father-mother differences.

  • Be familiar with child care quality & effects.

robot