Chapter 2: Culture and Society

cultural appropriation - members of one cultural group borrow elements of another’s culture

• may reduce way of life to demeaning stereotype

• ex. non-Indian person wears sari

culture - values held by members of particular group

• constantly evolving

  • ex. interracial marriage

• institutionally created

  • ex. certain states outlawed gay marriage based on culture

• useful in maintaining societal patterns over time

• provides society members with readymade ways of thinking and acting

• relies on some degree of conformity

  • varies based on historical context for specific societies

  • police among us informally and formally

• ex. languages spoken, symbols, norms followed, material goods created and hold meaning, way of life

  • (Durkheim)

nonmaterial culture - nonphysical components of culture

• ex. values, norms, symbols, language, speech, writing

values - abstract ideals on what is desirable, proper, good, bad

• ex. monogamy, individualism, collectivism

norms - widely agreed-upon principles/rules people expected to observe

• “dos and don’ts”

• everyday behaviors and habits grounded in norms

• vary widely across and within culture and change over time

• individuals learn norms in culture mostly during childhood

  • then norms internalized and become unquestioned ways of thinking/acting

• ex. people smile in public often in western nations

mores - acceptable norms, customs, values of given group

language - system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts

• how we organize what we do

• involved in everyday activities, ceremony, religion, poetry

• allows extend scope of thought and experience

• convey information about events remote in time and space

• gives permanence to culture and identity that outlives particular speaker/writer

  • creates sense of history and cultural continuity

  • ex. Quebec refuse to speak English and speak Quebecois

symbols - representations of reality

• signify things we imagine, experience, emotions

• behavior oriented towards symbols used to represent reality rather than reality itself

• ex. dog = household pet in America vs dog = food in Thailand

linguistic relativity hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) - language used influences perceptions of world

• more likely to be aware of things in world if have words for them

• ex. skiers have more terms to describe snow and ice conditions than average person, sees different perception of snow and slopes

material culture - physical objects society creates

• influences how we live

• becoming globalized

  • ex. no difference between US phone and Japanese phone

• ex. food, clothes, cars, homes, tools, technology

signifier - vehicle of meaning used to communicate

• ex. sounds made in speech, marks made on paper, dress, pictures

society - system of interrelationships that connects individuals together

• interdependent with culture

social control - punishing individuals for breaking rules to instill cultural conformity

• ex. rebuking, gossiping, ostracization, parking tickets, imprisonment

• punishment guarantees conformity, reminds others what norms and values are (Durkheim)

sociobiology - application of biological principles to explain social activities of animals

• genes influences behavior too (Edward O. Wilson)

  • males larger and more aggressive than females and dominate weaker sex

reproductive strategy - pattern of behavior arrived at through evolutionary selection that favors chances of survival of offspring

• ex. female body has larger investment in reproductive cells than male

  • females not driven to have sexual relations with many partners vs males

instinct - inborn, biologically fixed patterns of action found in all individuals no matter culture

biological determinism - belief that differences observed between groups of people explained wholly by biological causes rather than social

• sociologists tend to argue against

• unethical to isolate people to test this

subculture - cultural groups within wider society that holds values and norms distinct from majority

• small societies tend to be culturally uniform

  • industrialized societies culturally diverse

• segment of population distinguishable from rest of society by cultural patterns

  • ex. goths, hipsters

• people can identify with particular subculture or move fluidly

• cultural diversity can improve nations

  • advances in arts, cuisine, science, technology

• cultural diversity increased when allow other groups immigrate into US

  • creates subcultures

  • ex. Chinatowns

multiculturalism - philosophy strives for world which dignity of all peoples respected

• envisions society which racial diversity is fully considered and valued

• demand for equal respect of all ideologies is problematic

  • ex. Nazi’s and white supremacists

• tends to make group identity more real

  • erases abstract qualities that embody cultural backgrounds

• race and culture become “apolitical”

  • no obligation to use laws to resolve race/culture related legal oppressions

  • treating everyone equal won’t resolve issues on its own

counterculture - groups reject prevailing values and norms of society

• give people freedom of expression

• ex. lgbt counterculture until became more mainstream and acceptable

assimilation - process by which different cultures absorbed into single mainstream culture

cultural pluralism (hyphenation) - tolerates “outsider” qualities

• stigmatizes them for being outsiders

• hyphenation of groups (African-American, Asian-American)

multiculturalism - respecting cultural diversity and promoting equality of different cultures

• “salad bowl” vs “melting pot”

• central cultural values shared by most in society but certain important differences deserve to be preserved

ethnocentrism - judging other cultures in terms of standards of own culture

cultural relativism - judging society by its own standards

• hard to see from different point of view

• ex. genital mutilation

cultural universals - values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures

• ex. all cultures have grammatically complex language and family system

hunters and gatherers - premodern society of small groups/tribes

• livelihood from hunting, fishing, gathering edible plants in wild

• egalitarian - little difference among members of society in number/kinds of material possessions

  • no division of rich/poor

• fixed territories, migrated year to year

• no stable membership

• religious values and ritual activities

pastoral societies - premodern society relying on domesticated livestock

• animals like cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses

agrarian societies - premodern society growing crops

• horticulture - sow own crops

• provided reliable supply of food than hunting and gathering

• can have more material possessions

industrialization - emergence of machine production

• use inanimate power resources

  • ex. steam, electricity

industrialized society - highly developed nation-states

• rapid pace of technological innovation

• large majority of employed population works in factories, offices, shops rather than agriculture

• most live and work in urban areas

  • social life impersonal and anonymous

• political systems more developed and intensive

  • forms of democracy instead of theocracy or monarchies

• solidified by colonialism

• clear, measurable boundaries

nation-states - political communities with delimited borders

• different than vague frontier areas in traditional states

• has culture, history, language, territory, nationality, and religion

• people of state have citizenship to nation

colonialism - process where Western nations establish rule in parts of world away from home territory

• shape social map of globe today

developing world - lower level of industrial development

• ex. India, most African and South American countries

Global South - developing countries south of US and Europe

• contrasted to wealthier, industrialized Global North

• underwent colonial rule/strongly influenced by colonial relationships

• nation-states

• most live in rural areas

  • rapid process of city development

emerging economies - countries in Global South in process of industrialization

• ex. Brazil, Mexico, Hong Kong

• industry and international trade

• rate of economic growth greater than of Western industrial economies

nationalism - sense of identification with ones country expressed through common set of strongly held beliefs

• can be overtly political, attempt to assert power of nation based on shared ethnic/racial identity over others

globalization - expanding and intensifying connections between countries on global scale

• physical, political, economic, cultural distance decreases

• things become transnational

  • ex. trade, financial markets, currencies, banking, information, technology, people, politics, social problems/movements

• people exposed to corporate stories and products, able to spread faster/easier

  • create cultural images and propagating them and changes global image of that culture

  • ex. Pokemon, Marvel

McDonaldization - principles of fast food restaurants coming to dominate more sectors of American society and rest of world

• means of exporting “American-ness”

• efficiency - optimizing methods for achieving goals

• calculability - focus on quantity rather than quality

• predictability - standardization and similarity

• control through non-human tech - use of machines to routinize tasks

• consequences:

  • produces irrationality of rationality

  • lead to inefficiency, high cost, illusion of fun and reality, false friendliness, helath and environmental hazards, dehumanization

• (George Ritzer)

grobalization - globalization motivated by imperialistic ambition of nations/corps/orgs

• desire to impose themselves on geographic areas

• see power, influence, profits grow

• spread of useless corporate culture and nothings

• replace “something” with “nothing”

  • “something” - indigenously controlled, conceived, rich in content

    • ex. museum, touring art exhibit, knowledgeable guide, guided tour of collection

  • “nothing” - social form conceived, controlled, comparatively devoid of substantive content

    • ex. Disney World, Haunted mansion, cast member, queuing for attraction through Disney