ID check tmr

Scientific Revolution (16th-17th centuries)

1. Ptolemy: An ancient Greek astronomer who proposed the geocentric model, where Earth is the center of the universe.

2. Natural Philosophy: Early study of nature and the physical universe, precursor to modern science.

3. Aristotle's Views of the World: Aristotle believed in a geocentric universe with Earth at the center, composed of four elements (earth, water, air, fire).

4. Nicolaus Copernicus: Proposed the heliocentric theory, placing the Sun at the center of the universe.

5. Heliocentric Theory: The model that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the solar system.

6. Tycho Brahe: An astronomer who made detailed observations of the stars and planets, but still believed in a geocentric system.

7. Johannes Kepler: Developed three laws of planetary motion, showing that planets orbit the Sun in ellipses.

8. Galileo Galilei: Used a telescope to support the heliocentric theory; discovered moons of Jupiter, phases of Venus.

9. Isaac Newton: Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, unifying previous scientific discoveries.

10. Encyclopedias: Collections of knowledge on various topics, popularized during the Enlightenment (e.g., Diderot's Encyclopédie).

11. Astrology: Study of celestial bodies to predict human events; practiced alongside astronomy before the scientific method.

12. Alchemy: Early form of chemistry focused on turning base metals into gold and finding the philosopher's stone.

Scientific Method and Key Figures

13. Francis Bacon: Advocated empiricism, the idea that knowledge comes from experience and experimentation.

14. Rene Descartes: Promoted deductive reasoning, using logic to draw conclusions from general principles.

15. Scientific Method: A systematic approach to investigation through observation, experimentation, and hypothesis testing.

16. Empiricism: The theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.

17. Deductive Reasoning: Logical process in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises.

18. Galen's Ideas: Ancient theories on human anatomy and medicine, based on animal dissection.

19. Andreas Vesalius: Conducted human dissections, challenging Galen's theories, and published On the Fabric of the Human Body.

20. William Harvey: Discovered the circulation of blood, demonstrating how blood is pumped by the heart.

21. Robert Boyle: Considered the father of modern chemistry, known for Boyle's law regarding gases.

Religion and the Scientific Revolution

22. Reaction of the Catholic Church to New Science: The Church often resisted new scientific ideas that contradicted religious teachings, such as the heliocentric theory.

23. National Academies of Science: Institutions established in the 17th and 18th centuries to promote scientific research (e.g., the Royal Society in England).

24. Impact of Scientific Revolution on Women: Limited initially; women faced restrictions in formal education but contributed through informal networks and salons.

25. Rationalism: Belief in reason and logic as the primary source of knowledge.

Enlightenment Thinkers and Ideas

26. Baruch Spinoza: Philosopher who promoted pantheism, the belief that God is present in all of nature.

27. Thomas Hobbes: Wrote Leviathan, advocating absolute sovereignty as the only solution to human selfishness.

28. John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract, influencing liberal political thought.

29. Philosophes: Enlightenment thinkers who promoted reason, secularism, and reform.

30. Montesquieu: Proposed separation of powers in government (executive, legislative, judicial branches).

31. Voltaire: Criticized religious intolerance and promoted freedom of speech and thought.

32. Deism: Belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in its operation.

33. Denis Diderot: Co-editor of the Encyclopédie, a comprehensive collection of Enlightenment knowledge.

34. Rousseau: Philosopher who advocated for direct democracy and wrote about the social contract and human inequality.

35. Religion in the Enlightenment: Many Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional religious views and promoted deism or secularism.

Enlightenment Economics and Social Ideas

36. David Hume: Philosopher known for skepticism and empiricism.

37. Adam Smith: Economist who wrote The Wealth of Nations, advocating free-market economics and the "invisible hand."

38. Beccaria: Critic of the criminal justice system; advocated for fair punishment and the abolition of torture.

39. Religious Toleration: Enlightenment thinkers pushed for acceptance of different religious beliefs.

40. Public Sphere: Spaces like salons and coffeehouses where people discussed Enlightenment ideas.

41. Travel Literature: Books about non-European cultures that influenced European views on other societies.

42. Enlightenment Ideas about Non-European Nations: Often ethnocentric, but some thinkers criticized European imperialism.

18th-Century Social Developments

43. Definition of Race: Enlightenment thinkers began classifying humans based on physical differences, leading to the modern concept of race.

44. Challenges to European Ideas of Racial Superiority: Critiques of colonialism and arguments for equality emerged.

45. Mary Astell: Early feminist thinker who advocated for women's education.

46. Salons: Social gatherings where intellectuals discussed ideas, often hosted by women.

47. Mary Wollstonecraft: Early advocate for women's rights; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

48. Novel: A new literary form that became popular in the 18th century, exploring individual experiences.

Enlightened Absolutism and Key Rulers

49. Frederick II (the Great): Prussian king who implemented Enlightenment reforms while maintaining absolute power.

50. War of Austrian Succession: Conflict over the Habsburg succession; involved most European powers.

51. Seven Years' War: Global conflict between major European powers, shaping future colonial empires.

52. Diplomatic Revolution: Shift in European alliances before the Seven Years' War.

53. Junkers: Prussian nobility who held significant military and political power.

54. Catherine the Great: Russian empress who embraced Enlightenment ideas but faced challenges in implementing reforms.

55. Pugachev Rebellion: Peasant uprising against Catherine the Great’s policies.

56. Partitions of Poland: Division of Polish territory among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

57. Maria Theresa & Joseph II: Habsburg rulers who implemented various reforms in Austria.

    18th-Century Reforms and Jewish Communities

    58. Habsburg Reforms in Austria: Reforms initiated by rulers like Maria Theresa and Joseph II, including legal and educational changes aimed at modernizing the state.

    59. Ghettos: Segregated areas where Jewish communities were forced to live, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe.

    60. Haskalah: The Jewish Enlightenment, a movement that encouraged Jews to integrate into European society and embrace secular education.

    61. Pale of Settlement: A region in the Russian Empire where Jews were allowed to reside, facing restrictions on movement and settlement.

    62. Pogroms: Violent attacks against Jewish communities, often condoned or ignored by local authorities.

    18th-Century Family, Gender, and Society

    63. Nuclear Family: A family unit consisting of parents and their children, becoming more common in the 18th century.

    64. Delayed Marriage & Its Causes: People began marrying later due to economic pressures and the desire to establish financial stability.

    65. Urban Jobs Based on Gender: Men typically worked in trades and factories, while women were employed in domestic service or textile work.

    66. 18th-Century Birth Control Methods: Methods included coitus interruptus, herbal remedies, and rudimentary contraceptive devices.

    67. Community Controls: Social mechanisms like public shaming and local regulation to maintain moral standards, especially around illegitimacy.

    68. Illegitimacy Explosion: A sharp increase in births outside of marriage during the 18th century, due to changing social norms and economic conditions.

    69. Prostitution: Sex work, common in urban areas; often a survival strategy for women with limited job opportunities.

    70. Homosexual Subcultures: Emerging social networks and communities of LGBTQ individuals, particularly in larger cities, though facing severe persecution.

    71. Wet Nursing: Practice where a woman (wet nurse) breastfed another's child, common among wealthier families.

    72. Infanticide: The intentional killing of infants, often due to economic hardship or social stigma surrounding illegitimate births.

    73. Foundling Homes: Institutions where abandoned children, often born out of wedlock, were cared for.

    Education, Literature, and Leisure

    74. Edward Gibbon: Historian best known for The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, examining the causes of the fall of the Roman Empire.

    75. Rise and Spread of Elementary Schools: Expansion of basic education for children, part of broader Enlightenment reforms emphasizing literacy.

    76. Popular Literature: Books and pamphlets accessible to the general public, often focusing on sensational stories, moral tales, or religious themes.

    77. Blood Sports: Violent forms of entertainment, such as bull-baiting and cockfighting, popular among the working class.

    78. 18th-Century Mass Leisure: Activities like fairs, carnivals, and public gatherings that provided entertainment for large groups of people.

    79. Carnival: A pre-Lenten festival marked by feasting, costumes, and public celebration, offering a temporary escape from social norms.

    80. Just Price: The idea that goods should be sold at a fair price, reflecting moral and ethical standards rather than pure market forces.

    Consumer Revolution and Changes in Daily Life

    81. Changes in Patterns of Food Consumption: Introduction of new foods like potatoes and corn, and increased availability of luxury items like sugar and coffee.

    82. Coffee and Sugar: New popular goods that became symbols of social status and fueled the growth of the consumer market.

    83. Consumer Revolution: A marked increase in the consumption and variety of goods available, driven by rising incomes and changing tastes.

    84. Changes to Clothing Consumption: People began buying more fashionable clothing as textile production increased and prices dropped.

    85. New Attitudes Toward Privacy: Increasing emphasis on personal space and private family life, especially in middle-class homes.

    Religion in the 18th Century

    86. Catholic Church in the 18th Century: Continued to hold significant influence, though it faced challenges from Enlightenment ideas and secularization.

    87. Pietism: A Protestant revival movement that emphasized personal faith, emotional worship, and devotion to God.

    88. John Wesley: Founder of Methodism, a movement that stressed personal piety and the need for social reform.

    89. Methodists: Followers of John Wesley's movement, emphasizing personal religious experience and social justice.

    90. Jansenism: A Catholic reform movement emphasizing predestination and strict adherence to faith, often in conflict with the official Church.

    91. Continued Pagan Practices: Folk traditions and rituals that persisted in rural areas despite the spread of Christianity.

    92. Faith Healing: Practice of using prayer or rituals to cure illnesses, often part of popular religious beliefs.

    Medical Advances

    93. Imports of Medicinal Plants: The European demand for exotic plants for medicine, brought from colonies around the world.

    94. Improvements in Surgery: Advances in surgical techniques, including the use of anesthesia and better hygiene practices.

    95. Midwives: Women who assisted in childbirth, often trusted figures in communities before the rise of professional obstetrics.

    96. Eradication of Smallpox: Edward Jenner developed the first successful smallpox vaccine using cowpox in the late 18th century.

    97. Edward Jenner: Pioneer of vaccination, his work laid the foundation for the eventual eradication of smallpox.