APHG MASTER SET

Unit 1

What is a map projection? A map projection is when you put our 3d earth onto a 2d plane. 

Human geography is the study of characteristics of humans themselves and their activities.

Physical geography studies the environment and the weather. 

GIS - Geographical information system   Computer system/software that stores, analyzes, and displays information from multiple digital maps or data sets.      

Remote Sensing - The process of detecting and monitoring the characteristics of an area. 

Time space convergence - It is also known as convergence. An example would be back in the 1800s it could take weeks or months to cross the ocean from North America to Europe while now it takes less than a day. 

Toponym - The name of a location refers to the location's physical characteristics. “West Palm Beach”

Friction of distance is the idea that when things are further apart than the other they are less likely to be connected or related. 

Human-Environment Interaction examines how societies use land and the impact of that use on the environment.

Environmental determinism is the idea that the physical environment, including landforms and climate, significantly shapes human behavior, while possibilism suggests that although the environment sets limits, human culture and creativity play key roles in overcoming these limits. 

Cultural ecology incorporates both ideas by exploring how culture interacts with nature. 

Political ecology, on the other hand, examines how economic structures and power dynamics drive environmental change. 

Regionalization - a process or tendency of dividing regions into small parts and splitting large areas into regions or districts.

Formal regions are areas where people share similar economic, social, political, and environmental traits. 

Functional regions, or nodal regions, are defined by a specific purpose, like a telephone market. 

Vernacular regions are informal and based on personal feelings about a place.

Regional boundaries are transitional, contested, and overlapping because they change over time, people often argue about where one region ends and another begins, and regions can blend together.

Geographers use regional analysis on local, national, and global scales by looking at how an area looks, the language spoken, and the cultures and traditions that are present.

Unit 2

  Arithmetic Density is defined as the total population divided by the total amount of land

Physiological Density is defined as the total population divided by the amount of arable land, meaning the land that is suitable for farming.

  Agricultural Density is defined as the number of farmers divided by the amount of farmland, showing how many people work on the land for each unit of arable area.

 Physical factors that affect population density include climate, landforms, water, and natural resources. Areas that are warm, wet, and flat tend to have more people because they are easier to live on and support farming, while cold, dry, or mountainous areas tend to be less populated.

 Human factors influencing population density include the availability of jobs, safety, and access to schools and hospitals. People are drawn to places with good work opportunities, safe neighborhoods, and quality public services. Fun cultural activities and lively cities also attract more residents.

At the local scale, population density is affected by jobs, schools, and safety. Areas with more employment, better schools, and safer neighborhoods tend to attract more families and individuals. Local parks and recreational opportunities can also influence where people choose to live.

At the regional scale, factors such as weather, natural resources, and transportation play a role. Regions with pleasant climates, abundant water or fertile soil, and good transportation networks (like roads and railways) tend to have higher population densities. Industries, such as farming and manufacturing, also contribute to regional population patterns.

At the national scale, overall population density is influenced by the strength of the economy, government policies, and historical events. Countries with strong economies often have more job opportunities, which attract people, while immigration rules, wars, and large-scale migrations can also change where and how many people live.

At the global scale, factors like climate, technology, and international connections matter. Areas with favorable weather and abundant resources attract more people, while advancements in transportation and global trade allow people to move more freely, often leading to higher densities in urban centers.

Arithmetic density is calculated by dividing the total population by the total land area. It shows how many people share a given space and indicates the pressure on available resources.

Physiological density is determined by dividing the total population by the amount of arable (farmable) land. This measure reveals how much pressure is placed on the land that produces food, with a higher number meaning more people rely on a limited amount of farmland.

Agricultural density is the number of farmers relative to the amount of farmland. It shows how many people work the land, with a high number suggesting that many farmers are sharing the same area of arable land.

Economic impacts of population density include more jobs and business opportunities in crowded areas, though higher living costs and increased demand for resources like water and food can also be challenges.

 Social impacts include increased interactions and cultural diversity, but high density can also lead to stress, housing shortages, and sometimes higher crime rates. 

Politically, densely populated areas may have more representation and greater demands for public services, which can lead to different political priorities compared to rural areas.

 Environmentally, high population density can result in increased pollution, loss of green space, and greater pressure on natural resources.

Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of people that the environment can support with its available resources.

Guest Worker: Individuals who migrate temporarily for employment.

Transhumance: Seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.

Interregional Migration: Movement from one region of a country to another.

Intraregional Migration: Movement within one region of a country.

Chain migration: Migration due to family or community ties in the destination area.

Unit 3

cultural enclave - chinatown

Term: Acculturation  

Definition: The process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt or adapt to the customs, values, and behaviors of another culture due to prolonged contact. This can involve changes in language, social practices, and lifestyles while still maintaining elements of the original culture.

Term: Cultural Assimilation  

Definition: When a non-dominant cultural group changes its identity to adopt the cultural traits of a dominant group.  

Example: A minority group gradually adopting the language, dress, and customs of the majority culture.

Term: Affirmative Action Policy  

Definition: A policy aimed at providing fair opportunities in jobs and education to underrepresented groups in order to address and correct past discrimination.

Term: Xenophobia  

Definition: The fear or dislike of people from other cultural groups.

Term: Scapegoating  

Definition: The practice of blaming a non-dominant cultural group for misfortunes or problems, suggesting that someone from that group is responsible for these issues.

Term: Stateless Nation  

Definition: A group of people who identify as a nation but do not have their own sovereign state.  

Example: The Kurds, who see themselves as an ethnic group yet are minorities spread across multiple countries.

Term: Cultural Hearth  

Definition: A geographic area where a set of cultural traits, ideas, and innovations originate and from which they spread.

Term: Globalization  

Definition: The process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among people, businesses, and governments worldwide, driven by trade, technology, and communication.

Term: Impact of Globalization on Culture  

Definition: Globalization spreads ideas, products, and cultural practices across the world, leading to cultural homogenization as well as greater cultural exchange and awareness.

Term: Popular Culture Creation  

Definition: The development of new cultural trends that are designed to appeal to a broad audience, often characterized by being current and widely accepted.

Term: Horizontal Diversity vs. Vertical Diversity  

Definition:  

- Horizontal Diversity: Variation among groups that are similar in status or function but spread across different locations.  

- Vertical Diversity: Differences in status or hierarchy within a similar group, where elements appear similar but are organized at different levels.

Term: Artifacts  

Definition: Physical objects or items that are made, constructed, or created by a culture, such as African wood drums.

Term: Mentifacts  

Definition: The ideas, beliefs, practices, aesthetics, and values that define a culture.

Term: Sociofacts  

Definition: The social structures and ways in which people organize themselves and relate to one another within a culture.

Term: Material vs. Nonmaterial Culture  

Definition:  

- Material Culture: Physical objects or structures created by a culture (e.g., a Chinese temple).  

- Nonmaterial Culture: The beliefs, values, and ideas of a culture (e.g., the religious or philosophical beliefs associated with that temple).

Term: Ethnic Enclave  

Definition: A geographic area within a city where a particular ethnic group is concentrated, such as Chinatown or Little Italy.

Term: Cultural Relativism  

Definition: The view that people’s beliefs and practices should be understood within the context of their own culture rather than judged by the standards of another culture.  

Example: Recognizing that arranged marriages are culturally accepted in some societies.

Term: Multiculturalism  

Definition: The coexistence of diverse cultures within one society, where all cultures are respected and valued.  

Example: In Canada, various immigrant groups maintain their cultural traditions while integrating into Canadian society.

Term: Nativism  

Definition: The preference for native-born citizens over immigrants, often advocating for policies that protect the interests of those born in the country.  

Example: Groups pushing for stricter immigration laws to ensure that certain jobs or benefits are reserved for citizens.

Definition:  

- Cultural Region: A specific area where people share similar cultural traits.  

- Cultural Realm: A larger area that includes several cultural regions with shared characteristics like similar foods, ethnic heritage, or history.

Term: Sequent Occupance  

Definition: The concept that different cultural groups occupy the same geographic space over time, with each group leaving its mark on the area.

Term: Centripetal Force  

Definition: A force that pulls objects toward the center of a circular path, keeping them moving in a curve rather than in a straight line.  

Example: The friction between a car’s tires and the road when navigating a curve provides the centripetal force necessary to keep the car on the road.

Term: Main Types of Diffusion  

Definition: The two main types of diffusion are relocation diffusion and expansion diffusion.

Term: Relocation Diffusion  

Definition: The spread of a cultural trait through the migration of people.  

Example: Latinx communities often practice Roman Catholicism because Spanish colonizers brought the religion with them.

Term: Contagious Diffusion  

Definition: The rapid and widespread spread of a cultural trait through direct contact between people.  

Example: A popular dance trend spreading quickly via social media.

Term: Hierarchical Diffusion  

Definition: The spread of cultural traits from influential or powerful people or organizations to others, often limited by cost or access.  

Example: Initially, cell phones were only available to wealthy individuals in large cities; over time, as they became mass-produced, they spread to a wider market.

Isogloss: A geographic boundary within which a particular linguistic feature occurs. 

Homogenization: reduction of cultural diversity

Unit 4 

Imperialism/Colonialism - When powerful countries took over others and changed borders. This caused problems because different groups were forced to live together.

Independence Movement - When people try to break away from another country to rule themselves. This happened in places like India and Africa.

Devolution - When the main government gives power to smaller local governments.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885) - A meeting where European countries decided how to split up Africa.

British Partitioned India - Britain divided its land into India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

definitional boundary dispute – a disagreement over the wording or meaning of a boundary agreement or treaty

locational (territorial) boundary dispute – a disagreement about the actual location of a boundary or who owns a specific area of land

irredentism – when a country believes it should control land outside its borders because of shared culture, history, or ethnicity

operational (functional) boundary dispute – a disagreement about how a boundary should be managed or controlled, such as rules for crossing

allocational (resource) boundary dispute – a disagreement over the use or ownership of natural resources found near or across a border

geometric boundary – a straight line drawn on a map, often based on latitude or longitude, not on natural features

physical (natural) boundary – a boundary that follows natural features like rivers, mountains, or deserts

cultural (ethnic) boundary – a boundary that separates people based on culture, like language or religion

antecedent boundary – a boundary made before people lived in the area or before it was well developed

subsequent boundary – a boundary made after people lived in the area, usually based on cultural or ethnic differences

superimposed boundary – a boundary drawn by outsiders without considering the people already living there

relic boundary – a boundary that no longer works as a border but still has visible signs or effects, like old walls or cultural differences

redistricting – redrawing district lines so each has about the same number of people

gerrymandering – drawing district lines to give one political group an unfair advantage

cracking – splitting a group into several districts to weaken their voting power

packing – putting like-minded voters into one district to reduce their influence in other areas

stacking – combining a strong group with a larger population to dilute their power

hijacking – redrawing districts so two current representatives from the same party end up in the same district

kidnapping – redrawing a district so that a representative’s home is moved to another district where they are less likely to be re-elected

1965 Voting Rights Act – a law meant to stop racial gerrymandering and protect voting rights

bipartisan – when both political parties work together

Ethnonationalism is when a group of people seeks to create a nation based on shared ethnicity. The Kurdish independence movement is an example.

Unit  5

Intensive Subsistence Ag: Hard laborious work that takes a lot of time to grow food typically rice for the people growing it to survive

Extensive Subsistence Ag: Easy farming that doesn’t take a lot of input for the person to get food

Pastoral Nomadism:Nomadic tribes will have domesticated grazing animals and they will follow the herd and let them graze in different areas.

Shifting Cultivation: People will take plots of land slash and burn the plants on land and grow crops on that land then after a few harvests they move to the next plot and repeat.

Bid-Rent Theory is the concept that land located near densely populated areas will be more expensive, leading to competition for that land.

Monocropping is when a farmer plants the same crop year after year. 

Monoculture, on the other hand, refers to growing only one type of crop at a time.

The Bid Rent Curve - relationship between distance from the market and the price of land.

Unit 6 

suburbanization: The growth of residential areas outside cities as people seek more space, lower costs, and better living conditions.  

urban sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of cities into surrounding rural areas, leading to low-density development and car dependency.  

decentralization: The movement of businesses, services, and populations away from city centers to suburban and outlying areas.  

edge cities: Large business, shopping, and entertainment districts located outside the traditional downtown of a city, often near highways.  

Filtering: the process of dividing of houses and occupancy by successive layers of decreasing-income 

Invasion and succession: Process by which new immigrants to a city move to and dominate or take over areas or neighborhoods occupied by older immigrant groups. 

Greenbelts: areas of protected forest or green spaces

Smart-growth policies: policies that respond to population density and urban sprawl

Slow growth cities: switching zoning laws so growth is slowed down - helps ease traffic

Zoning: categorizing pieces of land for specific uses/restrictions

New Urbanism - Differs from smart growth because focuses more on fostering European Style cities rather than promoting large scale measures for planning. It is pretty similar to smart growth

Government Support for Affordable Housing

Inclusionary zoning: incentives land owners to create space for low income

Scattered site: government provide aid with rent to disperse public housing

Unit 7

industrialization - the shift from agriculture to manufacturing and heavy industry

deindustrialization - the move from manufacturing to a service-based economy

effects of deindustrialization - job losses, urban decay, lower property values, and increased inequality

economic sectors pyramid - a structure showing primary (raw materials), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services), and quaternary (knowledge-based activities)

weber's least cost theory - companies choose locations where costs like transportation and labor are lowest

hotelling's model - businesses cluster together to attract more customers

wallerstein's world systems theory - a way to classify countries into core (rich), semi-periphery (middle), and periphery (poor)

rostow's model of development - stages a country goes through from a traditional society to one with high mass consumption

bulk-reducing industries - industries that locate near raw materials

bulk-gaining industries - industries that locate near customers

containerization - using large, standardized containers to make shipping cheaper and more efficient

microfinance - small loans given to low-income people to help start or grow a business

comparative advantage - when a country can produce something at a lower cost than others

supranational trading blocs - groups of countries that work together to reduce trade barriers

outsourcing/offshoring - moving jobs or production to other countries to cut costs

economic restructuring - shifting from a manufacturing-based economy to one based on services

basic vs. non-basic activities - basic activities bring money into an area, while non-basic activities serve local needs

post-fordist methods - flexible, specialized production that replaces traditional mass assembly lines

economies of scale - reducing the cost per unit by producing in large quantities

agglomeration economies - cost benefits that businesses gain by being close to each other

technopoles - high-tech hubs where many technology companies cluster

brownfields - old industrial sites that can be redeveloped

flexible production - adaptable manufacturing processes that reduce waste and increase efficiency

just-in-time production - making goods only as they are needed to lower inventory costs

sustainability - using resources in a way that does not harm future generations

sustainable development - improving quality of life without damaging the environment

climate change - the warming of the Earth caused by human activities

core vs. periphery - rich countries cause more pollution but can manage its effects better, while poor countries suffer more

un millennium development goals - targets set to reduce poverty and improve education, health, and the environment

sustainable development goals - a broader set of targets addressing global challenges for a better future