Macromolecules:

1. What monomers make up each of the biomolecules:  lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates- monosaccharide(sugar molecules)

Lipids- the glycerol and three fatty acids ( the fat molecule)

Proteins-amino acids 

nucleic acids-a nucleotide

2.  What elements makeup lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates- C,H,O

Lipids-C,H,O

Proteins-C,H,O,N

Nucleic acids-C,H,O,N,P

3. List the functions/jobs of lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates- short term energy 

Lipids-long term energy storage

Proteins-strengthen, defense,transport,catalyze chemical reactions(enzymes),etc…

Nucleic acids- stores genetic information-ex. are DNA and RNA

4.  What type of biomolecule is an enzyme?- a protein

   1. What are some environmental changes that affect enzyme function?

Temperature- increase in temp means increase in rate of reaction until it reaches its optimum temp.Proteins denature and rate of reaction decreases quickly above optimal temp.(reaction is occurring the fastest) pH- if the pH is too low or high the enzyme and substrate will denature.Proteins may be denatured by chemical action, heat or agitation causing a protein to unfold or its polypeptide chains to become disordered typically leaving the molecules non-functional. (Review enzyme packet and look on the second page)

5. Define:

   1.  Peptide Bond- a covalent bond between an amine group and a carboxyl group between two amino acids

   2. Dehydration synthesis- the process of combining molecules or compounds together following the removal of water.Creating polymers. Adding monomers together to form polymers.

   3. Hydrolysis-the chemical breakdown of compounds due to the addition of water.Creating monomers. Breaking apart polymers to get monomers

6. Given a diagram, be able to identify whether the process is dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis.

   https://i.ytimg.com/vi/0b9WBtL8Rjk/mqdefault.jpg

7.  Note the different types of monosaccharides-  MONO:glucose,fructose,galactose, DIsaccharides- maltose(glu +glu), sucrose(glu+fru), lactose(glu+gala), and POLYsaccharides-starch,glycogen,cellulose.

Organelles:

8.  How are unicellular organisms- organisms with only one cell. Not complex.  different from multicellular organisms?- made with many cells.Complex. What does cell specialization mean in reference to multicellular organisms?-cells with unique characteristics/functions in the body

9. Be able to identify diagrams of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. What is the difference between them?

a.     Nucleus vs no nucleus: prokaryotic has no nucleus, the DNA is free-floating and eukaryotic has a nucleus that contains DNA

b.     Membrane bound organelles-Eukaryotic does have, prokaryotic has no membrane bound organelles.This membrane bound organelle contains enzymes that break down macromolecules. The enzymes within the lysosome participate in the digestion of bacteria and viruses that have invaded the cell and break down parts of the cell that are not needed or need to be replaced.Many cellular functions, including the uptake and conversion of nutrients, synthesis of new molecules, production of energy, and regulation of metabolic sequences, take place in the membranous organelles

10. What are the functions of:

    1. Endoplasmic reticulum- Has smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum w/ribosomes. Acts as a highway, materials made/processed in one part of the cell and is transported to new parts of the cell on the ER and then transported elsewhere.

    2. Nuclear envelope.membrane- the nucleus is surrounded by this membrane, a double membrane.Separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

    3.  Cytoskeleton- the structural support of the cell.Strands of proteins that help maintain size and shape.

    4. Cell wall-an extra  outer layer protects the cell and gives structural support, not in animal cells, but in plant & prokaryotic cells. 

    5. Cell membrane- Semi-permeable(certain things in and out)Maintains homeostasis.Allows certain molecules in and out of the cell-barrier. Is in all cells.Can push items into the cells

    6.  Golgi apparatus-complex-packages and distributes compounds places around the cell

    7.  Chloroplast-part of a plant cell that converts sun energy into food-glucose/sugar. Photosynthesis happens here.

    8. Mitochondria- the powerhouse of the cell, energy is produced and stored in a small molecule called ATP.

    9. Ribosomes – free-floating or attached to which organelle?- Mini protein factories that assemble proteins.They are attached to the rough ER 

    10. Vacuole- a special storage chamber in the cell:food,water,waste

11. Compare between logistic-logical growth of data, more real-life scenarios( has an s-shape) and has things that affect the data like predators and diseases. There is a carrying capacity.Exponential growth models-models that are unrealistic, perfect world environments, no predators or diseases that would disrupt the exponential stable growth of the graph.

12. What is carrying capacity? -the highest point on a logistic graph,where the population levels off due to lack of storage,resources, or space.

    1. Be able to translate a carrying capacity graph, i.e. where is a population increasing, where is it at equilibrium?

Transport:

13. Draw the cell membrane and label all parts of the cell membrane. - phospholipid bilayer.Phospholipid heads and fatty acid tails, Heads are hydrophilic(water loving) and the tails are hydrophobic (water fearing)

14.  Differences between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.-If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will leave the cell, and the cell will shrink. In an isotonic environment, there is no net water movement, so there is no change in the size of the cell. When a cell is placed in a hypotonic environment, water will enter the cell, and the cell will swell.

15. What’s the difference between active-requires energy to go from low to high concentration  and passive transport?- does not require energy and goes from a high to low concentration.

    1. What molecules are able to simply diffuse (freely) through the phospholipid bilayer and why?

Molecules that are nonpolar, and small,easy to get through the phospholipid bilayer

2.  What molecules need facilitated by proteins to pass through the membrane and why?- the random movement of molecules across the cell membrane via the aid of a membrane protein (these are helpers). Carrier proteins are embedded in the cell membrane and are shaped to fit a certain molecule (how glucose enters the cell). Channel proteins are ion channels specific to one thing/atom.They can be opened or closed with gates depending on the situation.This is how charged particles enter the cell.

3. When is ATP required for molecule movement through membrane proteins and why?- when the molecules move from a low to a high concentration, aka going against the concentration gradient. It is needed for certain pumps in the membrane to function.Gives them energy. Sodium potassium pump function:move potassium ions into the cell while simultaneously moving sodium ions out of the cell.

DNA, (Mitosis), Protein Synthesis and Mutations- REFER BACK TO PROTEIN SYNTHESIS PAPER(THE ONE WE TAPED BECAUSE IT WAS SO LONG)

Central Dogma:

16. What is the central dogma of life? (DNA→ RNA→ Proteins→ YOU!!)

17. What happens during DNA replication and when does it take place?. DNA replication is important because you have to duplicate genetic material in the interphase before splitting so that duplicate chromosome can carry out its function 

18. Draw an unreplicated chromosome.  Draw a duplicated chromosome.  Draw homologous chromosomes.

19. What are the jobs of DNA,-DNA serves as the genetic blueprint for the organism. It contains the instructions for building proteins. mRNA, - mRNA acts as a messenger that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.  tRNA- tRNA serves as the adaptor molecule that translates the mRNA codons into the appropriate amino acids during protein synthesis.There is a specific protein for each codon.

20. Given a diagram, be able to provide locations of DNA- In eukaryotic cells, DNA is primarily located in the nucleus. It can also be found in mitochondria and chloroplasts (in plant cells), where it is involved in specific functions related to energy metabolism and photosynthesis., mRNA- mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus during transcription. After processing (capping, polyadenylation, and splicing), mature mRNA is transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm., and tRNA.-tRNA is found in the cytoplasm. It is synthesized in the nucleus and then transported to the cytoplasm, where it carries amino acids to the ribosomes.

21. Define:

    1. Transcription- when DNA gets turned into mRNA to be then go out into the cytoplasm and go to a ribosome.

    2. Exon-segments of mRNA that are removed from the mRNA strand,unused codon parts 

    3. Intron- functional segments of mRNA

    4.  Translation-after mRNA has received DNA’s message, it goes into the cytoplasm to find a ribosome that will read the mRNA and then tRNA will find a complementary codon to mRNA’s codons with an amino acid attached to it and lose amino acids will form long chains of proteins that make up you.

22. Be able to transcribe mRNA from a DNA strand.  Be able to translate mRNA into an amino acid/polypeptide chain.

Mutations/Application:

23.  Look over electrophoresis examples.Smaller fragments will travel the farthest,longer fragments will travel the shortest.  How do banding patterns differ among family members, i.e. sibling, parent, identical twin?-

24.   What is the difference between silent, nonsense, and missense mutations?  What effect (if any) do these mutations have on the amino acids chain and overall function of the protein?

Silent Mutations

• Definition: A silent mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that does not alter the amino acid sequence of the protein. This typically occurs in the third position of a codon, where multiple codons can code for the same amino acid due to the redundancy of the genetic code.

• Effect on Amino Acid Chain: No change in the amino acid sequence occurs.

• Overall Function of the Protein: Generally, silent mutations have no effect on protein function. However, they can occasionally influence protein folding or expression levels, but these effects are usually minimal.

 Nonsense Mutations

• Definition: A nonsense mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that converts an amino acid codon into a stop codon. This leads to premature termination of protein synthesis.

• Effect on Amino Acid Chain: The protein is truncated, meaning it is shorter than intended and may lack essential functional domains.

• Overall Function of the Protein: Nonsense mutations often lead to a nonfunctional protein. Depending on the position of the mutation, it can have severe consequences, including loss of function or gain of deleterious properties.

 Missense Mutations

25. Definition: A missense mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein sequence. This can occur in any codon position.

26. Effect on Amino Acid Chain: The amino acid sequence is altered, which can affect the protein's structure and function.

27. Overall Function of the Protein: The effect of missense mutations on protein function can vary widely. Some may have little to no impact, while others can significantly affect the protein's stability, activity, or interaction with other molecules. In some cases, missense mutations can lead to diseases.

28. Define:

    1.  Nondisjunction- An error in meiosis when homologous chromatids fail to separate properly.

Types of nondisjunction:

2. Trisomy-three copies of a chromosome.

3.  Monosomy-one copy of a chromosome.

Meiosis and Genetics

Cellular Division:

29.   Be specific:  What is produced in meiosis?- gametes/sex cells   How many cells?-4 cells.  Diploid-paired chromosomes or haploid? -single chromosomes. Identical or genetically varied? Gametes-sex cells or somatic cells-body cells ? How does this compare to the end result of mitosis?-At the end of mitosis, you have two genetically identical daughter cells that are diploid with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell, they produce somatic body cells for repair and growth.Meiosis creates two genetically different gamete sex cells that determine gender.They are haploid, meaning they have half of the chromosomes as the parent cell had.

30. How do you count the number of chromosomes in the nucleus?-by how many individual  centromeres there are.

31. What is crossing over?- an exchange or transfer of genetic information.  When does it occur? Prophase 1  What is the result of crossing over-increases genetic diversity. (think big idea)?

32.   What are homologous chromosomes-chromosomes with the same size and  code  for the same traits. How many sets of homologous chromosomes do humans have in each of their somatic cells? -46 2n or two sets of 23 chromosomes

33.  Define:

    1.  Fertilization- cells join together during this process to create a diploid zygote.The new individual has the same number of chromosomes as each parent/original cell.The process of combining the male gamete, or sperm, with the female gamete, or ovum. The product of fertilization is a cell called a zygote.

    2. Zygote-the normal fertilized egg with 46 chromosomes.

Genetics:

34.  What’s the difference between genes and alleles?- genes are segments of DNA,alleles are different forms of a gene.

 What is the difference between incomplete dominance- a mixture of the two traits  and codominance?- you can see both traits, there isnt one overpowering

35.  Be able to work through a sex-linked pedigree problem.

36.  Be able to perform dihybrid crosses?  

 Cellular Energy

37. What are the reactants of photosynthesis? Co2+H2O + light energy What are the reactants of cellular respiration? C6H12O6+O2

38. Where does cellular respiration occur?Cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria.The first step in CR takes place in the cytoplasm.The second and third steps take place in the mitochondria. How about photosynthesis?-PS occurs in the chloroplast.

39. Define chemosynthesis.  How is it similar/different from photosynthesis?-refers to the flow of protons down an electrochemical gradient,generates a moving charge that can be used as a source of energy

Who photosynthesizes-plants,algae, and some bacteria - Who respires?- all living things respire

40. What is fermentation?-when there is no oxygen to go into the mitochondria, this is an anaerobic reaction that means something is done without oxygen.  What are the products of fermentation?The end result only gives out 2 ATP but there are two types of fermentation called :Alcoholic Fermentation and Lactic Acid fermentation.

Evolution

41. How do the studies of Lamark and Darwin differ?

Darwin-nature exerted the pressure on a population to change and then nature selected those with the best traits to survive.Variation between a population or species.Just because an individual changes something about its body or behavior, doesn't mean that change can or will be passed down onto their offspring.Organisms pass down traits they are born with.Each organism is a little bit different from one another.

Lamark-animals were selecting themselves to survive/organisms changed because they wanted to survive.Species never went extinct,they just kept changing,Acquired Characteristics.When the individual reproduced,the changes that it had made during its lifetime would be passed onto its offspring.

42. What is a cladogram? Review in class cladogram problems and be able to work through them on your test.

    1.  *Be sure to note that organisms who share similarities in amino acid sequences and DNA are more similar than those who have more differences.

A cladogram is a branching tree diagram that shows ancestral/evolutionary  relationships among organisms. These diagrams show evolutionary relationships between different branches referred to as clades. Organisms are arranged in such a way that each clade shares common traits or characteristics not shared with other clades.

43. Define:

    1. Gene Flow-individuals from one population migrate or move into another population.Movement of alleles from one population to another,increasing biodiversity.

 Founder effect-a type of genetic drift that occurs when small founder populations move to a new region in nature.Individuals from a population break off and form their own population.Decreases Biodiversity.

2.  Natural selection and its effect on populations-a change in the environment that determines which individuals have a better chance of survival.Think about the moth example.

3. Sexual selection-

Intersexual- selection occurs when members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with

intrasexual- selection occurs when members of the same sex compete with each other in order to mate with members of the opposite sex.

Some individuals have better reproductive success than others in a population.This changes the populations characteristics over time as a response to their environment.

4. Speciation- how a new kind of plant or animal species is created. Speciation occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics.

5. Adaptation-organisms that adapt show us natural selection,could be good or bad.An evolutionary process where an organism becomes better able to survive/live in its habitants 

6. Convergent Evolution-causes similar features or adaptations to develop in species that aren’t closely related.Doesnt come from an ancestor body.

7. Divergent Evolution-features from an ancestors body structure to develop into different structures or adaptations in two different descendent species.

44. What’s the difference between genetic drift- the term used by scientists for an event where there are changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random chance, decreases biodiversity.Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation.  and gene flow?-individuals from one population migrate or move into another population,increasing biodiversity.

 Provide examples of each: 

Genetic drift ex:bottleneck effect,founder effect

Gene flow ex:pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries.

45. What are the defining characteristics of a Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?  What happens to allele frequencies when Hardy-Weinberg conditions are met?

Hardy’s equilibrium is the opposite of each finger of evolution.When his conditions are met, populations are not evolving.

46. What are the five mechanisms of evolution -- be able to label on a “hand” diagram.

Natural Selection:

• Alleles that confer a survival or reproductive advantage tend to increase in frequency over time because individuals with those alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce.

• Conversely, alleles that reduce fitness tend to decrease in frequency or may eventually be eliminated from the population.

• Natural selection can lead to adaptation to the environment.

Genetic Drift:

• Genetic drift is the random fluctuation in allele frequencies due to chance events, especially in small populations.

• In small populations, some alleles may be lost or fixed (i.e., become the only allele present in the population) purely due to random sampling effects, rather than any selective advantage.

• This can lead to a loss of genetic variation in small populations.

Gene Flow (Migration):

• Gene flow occurs when individuals from different populations interbreed, introducing new alleles into the population.

• This can increase genetic diversity and alter allele frequencies by bringing in alleles that were previously absent or rare in the population.

Mutation:

• Mutations are random changes in the DNA sequence that can introduce new alleles into the population.

• While mutations themselves are typically rare, they provide the raw material for evolution by generating new genetic variation.

• Mutations can increase genetic diversity, and some may be beneficial, neutral, or deleterious, influencing allele frequencies depending on selection pressures.

Non-random Mating:

• If individuals preferentially mate with others who have similar or different traits, it can affect allele frequencies

• .Inbreeding can increase the frequency of certain alleles (especially harmful recessive alleles), while assortative mating (mating with similar phenotypes) can influence the frequencies of traits associated with particular alleles.

47. How do allele frequencies change in an evolving population-Evolution occurs when there is a change in allele frequency within a population over time.

 (i.e. how does natural selection affect allele frequencies of advantageous traits)?-Since natural selection favors genotypes that are better able to survive and reproduce, a new "favored" (i.e., beneficial) allele will increase in frequency over a number of generations. The rate of increase in frequency of the favored allele will depend on whether the allele is dominant or recessive

48. Know what “p”-dominant  and “q”-recessive 

 stand for and be able to calculate the number of p and q frequencies given diagrams (check out the first page of your evolution information packet).

49. What are the three types of natural selection?  Review examples on “Patterns of Natural Selection Worksheet.”

Stabilizing selection: intermediate is favored by environment

Directional selection: one extreme is favored by environmental conditions

Disruptive selection: both extreme phenotypes have some advantages.

50. What’s the difference between homologous,-different structures that developed from an ancestral structure analogous-structures that have similar form or function but these structures were not present in those organisms common ancestor and vestigial structures-structures from ancestors that are no longer of use or serve no more of its function?