CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS OUTSIDE THE DISPOSITIONAL PARADIGM

Psychoanalysis and Personality Theory

• Pioneered by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

  • Focus: Unconscious motivations and needs that influence behavior.
  • Known as Psychodynamic theories - personality shaped by conflicts between unconscious and conscious forces.

• Five Propositions of Psychoanalysis:

  1. Most thoughts, feelings, and motives behind behavior are unconscious.
  2. Unconscious and conscious motives operate in parallel.
  3. Childhood experiences (especially parental interactions) significantly impact personality development.
  4. Personality representations often shape relationships and feelings towards others.
  5. The normative development of personality involves the transition from instinctual to social behaviors.

• Critiques: Propositions are often untestable but compatibility with some empirical findings has been noted.

Behaviorism and Personality Theory

• Main Contributor: John Watson (U.S. Founder)

  • Focus: Observable behavior rather than internal psychological processes.
  • Behavior is seen as conditioned responses to specific stimuli.

• Characteristics of Behaviorism:

  • Emphasizes external stimuli as causes of behavior.
  • Concerned with behavior change rather than understanding underlying processes.
  • Personality: Sum of learned associations (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

• B.F. Skinner and Radical Behaviorism:

  • Focuses on environmental factors influencing behavior.
  • Tolman (1939): Emphasis on theoretical analysis for psychological insights.

• Less Radical Behaviorism:

  • Incorporates psychological terms to describe behavioral patterns and capacities.
  • Aims to elaborate behavioral patterns using unobservable variables (like memories and emotions).

Phenomenological Personality Theories

• A blend of psychology and philosophy emphasizing individuality and subjective experiences.

• Life is perceived uniquely by each individual, promoting self-determined paths.

  • All humans are inclined towards personal improvement and self-actualization (the drive to reach their potential).

• Key Aspects:

  • Psychologists can aid individuals who encounter obstacles to self-actualization, which leads to happiness.
  • Inconsistency between one’s ideals and actual self can cause anxiety.
  • Significant contribution: Application of phenomenological principles to cross-cultural studies.

Social-Cognitive Theories of Personality

• Extensions of later behaviorist theories focused on subjective processes.

• Higgins (1999): Self-comparative processes can lead to anxiety when self-views don't match aspirations.

• Baldwin (1999): Relational schemas shape self-image based on social interactions.

  • Schemas aid in organizing expectations and understanding new situations.

• Dweck (1997): Differentiates between incremental and fixed entity beliefs regarding competence.

Biological Approaches to Personality Theory

• Aim: Identify links between physical and psychological variables.

• Examines traits in relation to biological factors, showing they can be complementary.

• Findings:

  • Brain regions like frontal lobes (planning) and amygdala (emotional responses) are tied to personality traits.
  • Hormones (testosterone) and neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine) significantly affect behavior and social interactions.

Behavioral Genetics

• Studies the influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality traits and intelligence.
• Supports the idea that personality traits are significantly biologically transmitted.

Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches

• Approaches like sociobiology consider the biological roots and evolutionary aspects of personality.

  • Focus on universal traits rather than individual differences.

• Cultural variations affect personality trait distribution and the interpretation of these traits.

• Triandis & Suh (2004): Show traits exist universally but operate differently in collectivist vs. individualist cultures.

• Evolutionary perspectives may be limited due to reductionism and lack of empirical testing.