Psych Unit 3 AOS2

Learning

  • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior and cognition resulting from experience.

  • It can be intentional or unintentional and varies in difficulty.

  • Few behaviors are not learnable (e.g., reflex actions, maturation, fixed action patterns in animals).

  • Learning occurs through various methods.

DP1

Behaviorist Approaches

  • Learning occurs through interaction with the external environment, focusing on observable behaviors:

    • Classical Conditioning

    • Operant Conditioning

    • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning

  • A learning process where a neutral stimulus (NS) creates a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) creating a conditioned response.

Three Phase Model

  1. Before Conditioning:

    • NS produces no response.

    • UCS leads to Unconditioned Response (UCR).

  2. During Conditioning (Acquisition):

    • NS is paired with UCS, resulting in UCR.

  3. After Conditioning:

    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) leads to Conditioned Response (CR).

Important Factors

  • Classical Conditioning relates to automatic or involuntary behaviors.

  • NS must precede or coincide with UCS for conditioning.

  • Frequency and timing of stimuli significantly affect conditioning strength.

Operant Conditioning

  • A learning process where consequences of behavior determine its future occurrence:

    • Operant: A response operating on the environment to create an effect.

    • Behavior may be strengthened by positive consequences or weakened by negative ones.

    • The learner is active in this process.

Skinner’s ABC Model

  • Identifies conditions for behavior occurrence:

    • A: Antecedent stimulus (Discriminative Stimulus) sets conditions for behavior and its reinforcement.

    • B: Behavior is performed

    • C: Consequence of the action

Reinforcement & punishment

Reinforcement

  • A positive stimulus that strengthens or increases response likelihood:

    • Positive Reinforcement: Gives something desirable after a desired behavior, enhancing it.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removes an unpleasant stimulus, reinforcing a response.

Punishment

  • A stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior:

    • Positive Punishment: Presents an unpleasant stimulus after undesired behavior, weakening it.

    • Negative Punishment: Removes a pleasant stimulus after undesired behavior, weakening it.

  • Both reinforcement types increase future response likelihood, while punishment decreases it.

Timing of Reinforcement

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every correct response, crucial for acquisition but less effective for sustaining high rates.

  • Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing some responses, leading to stronger and more resilient responses post-acquisition.

Effectiveness of Punishment

  • Frequent punishment may lead to frustration and aggression, and resentment toward the punisher.

  • Offering an alternative desired response and reinforcing it is beneficial.

Effectiveness of Consequences

  • Order of Presentation: Reinforcement or punishment should follow the response consistently.

  • Appropriateness: Effectiveness is influenced by personal characteristics.

  • Timing: Immediate reinforcement or punishment increases effectiveness.

DP2

Social Learning Theory

  • Learning occurs by observing another person’s actions and their consequences to guide future behavior.

  • A process through which individuals acquire values, behaviors, and attitudes.

  • Also known as observational learning or modeling, where the observed person is referred to as the model.

  • Social learning is a more active process than classical or operant conditioning.

Observational Learning

Observational learning allows us to acquire behaviors without directly performing them or experiencing their consequences. Instead, we learn by watching others and seeing the outcomes of their actions.

  • Involves being conditioned through someone else’s experiences.

  • Vicarious (indirect) conditioning: Observing another person’s behavior being reinforced or punished.

  • Behavior is then influenced by the observed consequences.

Bandura’s Main Findings

  • Learning occurs through observing others rather than direct reinforcement.

  • Vicarious conditioning: Watching someone else experience reinforcement or punishment influences our behavior.

  • Individuals adjust their actions based on observed consequences.

Vicarious Punishment & Reinforcement

  • Vicarious Reinforcement: Watching someone else being rewarded for a behavior increases the likelihood of adopting that behavior.

  • Vicarious Punishment: Observing someone else being punished for a behavior decreases the likelihood of engaging in that behavior.

Processes in Social Learning

Observational Learning Process

  • Stage 1 – Attention: Learner actively watches the model.

  • Stage 2 – Retention: Learner stores a mental representation of the behavior.

  • Stage 3 – Reproduction: Learner has the mental and physical ability to perform the behavior.

  • Stage 4 – Motivation: Environmental stimuli make the learner wish to perform the behavior.

  • Stage 5 – Reinforcement: A positive outcome means the learner will repeat the behavior when motivated again.

Through Stages 1–4, learning is latent. Behavior is shown at this point.

DP3

Learning as Part of an Interconnected System

  • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge systems represent the oldest and longest continuing forms of learning in Australia.

  • Their ways of knowing are unique, complex, and sophisticated, differing from Western concepts of learning.

  • These ways of knowing vary across different language and cultural groups.

  • Learning is deeply connected to relationships between teachers and learners, supporting community needs through relevant knowledge.

Key Aspects of Learning

  • Learning occurs through a multimodal approach.

  • Strong emphasis on the relationship between learners and teachers.

  • Knowledge is acquired through seeing, hearing, feeling, and doing.

  • Learning is relevant to both individual and community life, linked to time, place, ancestry, and spirit.

  • Contributes to a strong sense of identity.

  • Knowledge is interconnected across a broader network.

Kinship System

  • Everyone is apart of the kinship network and their position defines what knowledge they can hold and who they can share it with.

  • The kinship network also is linked with different entities in the world including plants, animals, and locations

8 Ways of Learning

  1. Story-sharing

    • Approaching learning through narrative, including stories told in song

  2. Community links

    • Takes place when the learner brings new knowledge to help their mob

  3. Deconstruct and Reconstruct

    • The learner looks at the whole process or concept at first and then breaks it down to look at individual parts in detail

  4. Non-linear learning

    • Learning occurs in the moment and in a manner that suits that point in time, not in a strict linear manner

  5. Land links

    • Place-based learning - learning drawn from the landscape with profound connections to ancestral and personal relationships with place

  6. Symbols and images

    • Images and drawings are a central aspect of learning

  7. Non-verbal learning

    • Using non-verbal, kinaesthetic approaches: people see, think, act, mime, make and share without words

  8. Learning maps

    • Process of picturing a pathway and creating a deliberate visual plan for learners to follow

DP4

Memory

An active information-processing system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.
There are several models used to describe and explain human memory, each with variations. However, most models recognize three fundamental processes:

  1. Encoding – Converting information into a form that can be stored.

  2. Storage – Retaining information over time.

  3. Retrieval – Accessing stored information when needed.

Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of Memory

This model proposes that memory consists of three separate but interrelated stores:

  • Sensory Memory

  • Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Each store has a different capacity (amount of information it can hold) and duration (how long information is stored).

Sensory Memory

  • The entry point for memory, where information is initially received as an exact replica.

  • Duration: 0.2 – 4 seconds

  • Capacity: Unlimited

Types of Sensory Memory:

  1. Iconic Memory (Visual Sensory Memory)

    • Stores visual information.

    • Duration: 0.2 – 0.4 seconds

    • Capacity: Unlimited

    • Allows us to perceive the world as continuous rather than in fragmented images.

  2. Echoic Memory (Auditory Sensory Memory)

    • Stores auditory information (e.g., speech, dog barking, sirens).

    • Duration: 3 – 4 seconds

    • Capacity: Unlimited

    • Called "echoic" because sounds linger briefly like an echo.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

A memory system with limited storage capacity, where information is retained for a short period unless actively renewed.

  • Duration: 18 – 20 seconds (occasionally up to 30 seconds).

  • Capacity: 5 – 9 bits of information (7 ± 2).

  • Information loss occurs due to:

    • Decay – Fading due to lack of use.

    • Displacement – Being replaced by new information.

Working Memory

STM is often referred to as working memory, emphasizing its role in actively processing and using information. It allows us to:

  • Work on and manipulate information during daily tasks.

  • Process sensory memory and retrieve LTM information for use.

Attention: Paying attention to sensory memory (or retrieved LTM information) allows it to enter STM.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Stores a potentially unlimited amount of information for a very long time, possibly permanently.

  • Consists of different types of memory.

Types of Long-Term Memory:

  1. Explicit Memory (Declarative – Requires Conscious Awareness)

    • Semantic Memory – General knowledge and facts. (e.g., "Paris is the capital of France.")

    • Episodic Memory – Personal experiences and events. (e.g., "My 10th birthday party.")

  2. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative – Does Not Require Conscious Awareness)

    • Procedural Memory – How to perform tasks and skills. (e.g., riding a bike, tying shoelaces.)

    • Classically Conditioned Memory – Learned responses to stimuli. (e.g., feeling anxious when hearing a dentist’s drill.)

Memory Stores

  1. Sensory Memory (SM)

    • Function:

      • Receives sensory information from the environment.

      • Enables perceptual continuity for the world around us.

    • Capacity: Vast, potentially unlimited.

    • Duration:

      • Momentary (about 0.2 – 4 seconds).

      • Occasionally up to 10 seconds.

  2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

    • Function:

      • Receives information from sensory memory (SM) and transfers it to and from long-term memory (LTM).

      • Maintains information in conscious awareness for immediate use.

    • Capacity: 7 ± 2 pieces of information.

    • Duration:

      • Temporary (18 – 20 seconds, occasionally up to 30 seconds).

      • Can last longer if renewed (e.g., maintenance rehearsal, working memory usage).

  3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

    • Function:

      • Stores information for later re-access and use.

    • Capacity: Vast, potentially unlimited.

    • Duration:

      • Potentially permanent.

      • Some information may be lost or inaccessible over time.

      • Indefinite.

DP5

Long-Term Memory Storage in the Brain

Long-term memories are stored across various brain regions. Different areas are activated depending on the type of information being encoded or retrieved. Key regions include:

  • Neocortex

  • Hippocampus

  • Amygdala

  • Cerebellum

  • Basal Ganglia

Neocortex

  • Part of the cerebral cortex with six layers.

  • Different lobes process specific types of information.

  • Stores long-term explicit memories.

  • Memories are stored in areas where information was initially processed (e.g. visual info in the occipital lobe).

Hippocampus

  • Curved structure in the medial temporal lobe, wraps around the thalamus.

  • Essential for forming (encoding) new explicit (declarative) long-term memories.

  • Converts short-term memories to long-term.

  • Active during consolidation of semantic and episodic memories.

  • Does not store memories permanently; transfers them to the neocortex.

  • Encodes emotional aspects of memories with help from the amygdala.

  • Involved in spatial memory (navigation).

  • Not involved in forming implicit procedural or classically conditioned memories.

Amygdala

  • Activated by adrenaline and noradrenaline.

  • Encodes emotional memories (especially fear and anger).

  • Involved in classical conditioning (emotional responses, e.g. phobias).

  • Retrieves emotionally charged explicit memories.

  • Damage impairs acquisition of conditioned fear responses.

Basal Ganglia

  • Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories.

  • Forms habits, especially reward-based ones.

  • Communicates with the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.

  • Releases dopamine for efficient movement and GABA to inhibit competing movements.

  • Located in the middle of the brain.

Cerebellum

  • Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories (motor skills).

  • Stores classically conditioned reflexes.

  • Damage prevents forming new conditioned reflexes.

  • Important for motor learning, voluntary movements, fine motor coordination, posture, and balance.

DP6

Imagined Futures

  • Episodic and semantic memory help construct possible imagined futures—hypothetical experiences a person can mentally simulate.

  • Involves projecting oneself forward in time using:

    • Episodic autobiographical knowledge

    • Semantic autobiographical knowledge

Alzheimer’s Disease

Overview:

  • A neurodegenerative disease causing widespread neuron degeneration and memory loss.

  • Most common type of dementia (50–75%).

  • Not a natural part of ageing.

  • Confirmed diagnosis is possible only post-mortem via autopsy.

Effects:

  • Memory decline

  • Cognitive and social skill deterioration

  • Personality changes

  • Hippocampus deteriorates first

  • Cerebral cortex is affected → short-term memory loss is an early symptom

  • Long-term memory (especially explicit memories) affected as it progresses

Diagnosis:

  • No visible physical signs in living patients.

  • Assessments involve memory, general knowledge, intellectual skills, personal skills, and functional ability.

Possible Causes:

  • Abnormal neural structures disrupt brain function:

    • Amyloid plaques

    • Neurofibrillary tangles

    • Reduced acetylcholine (ACh)

Symptoms:

  • Memory loss

  • Personality change

  • Confusion and disorientation

  • Repetitive behaviour

  • Cortical shrinkage

Semantic and Episodic Memory in Alzheimer’s

  • Difficulty recalling semantic and episodic elements of personal events.

  • Studies show patients struggle to use these memories to imagine the future.

  • Impaired future thinking affects:

    • Social interactions

    • Planning and carrying out plans

    • Sense of identity

Aphantasia

  • Condition where individuals cannot form mental imagery (1–5% of the population).

  • Mental imagery = visual experience without sensory input.

  • Those with aphantasia report no ability to visualise images.

  • Involves weaker connection between:

    • Visual cortex (back of the brain)

    • Frontal lobes (attention, decision-making)

  • Vividness of imagery correlates with activity in visual cortex.

DP7

Written Cultures

  • Practices where knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared primarily through writing and reading.

  • Cultures with written traditions document stories and knowledge in forms such as books, articles, and visual arts.

  • Often contrasted with oral cultures, but all cultures include both written and oral elements.

Mnemonics

  • Memory aids used across cultures to help encode, store, and retrieve information.

  • Common mnemonic types:

    • Acronyms – words formed from the first letters of other words.

    • Acrostics – sentences where each word starts with the first letter of items to remember.

    • Method of Loci – linking information to specific locations in a familiar spatial environment.

Oral Cultures

  • Share knowledge, stories, and customs through spoken word and movement.

  • Integral to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures.

  • Include songs, dances, and storytelling to pass down important cultural, ecological, and survival knowledge.

  • Sung narratives are traditional forms used across cultures to transmit information via harmony and rhythm.

  • Information is learned and recalled through vocal song and rhythm.

  • Performances are often multimodal and occur as families or communities travel through Country.

  • These journeys follow Songlines – physical and spiritual paths embedded with stories and knowledge.

Songlines

  • Not just songs, but a connection between performance, place, and ancestral journey.

  • Carry laws and stories Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples live by.

  • Represent interconnectedness with Country (Land, Water, Sky) and Culture (Ways of knowing and being).

  • Deeply tied to First Nations identity and ancestral connections to Country.

  • Use rhythm and narrative to encode information linked to the landscape.

  • Comparable to the method of loci, as walking through (or imagining) the landscape helps retrieve associated knowledge.

  • Reflect respect for ancestors, spiritual beings, and the land.

Key Science Skills

Aim

  • The aim states the purpose of the investigation, expressed as “investigate the influence of IV on DV.”

Hypothesis

  • A testable prediction of the relationship between two events:

    • Must be testable, involve prediction, identify the population, and indicate the direction/strength of IV-DV relations.

    • Should start with “It was hypothesized that.”

Operational Hypothesis Formula:

  • It was hypothesized that [population] who [IV as experienced by experimental group] will [prediction] on [operationalized DV] than those ([population]) who [IV as experienced by control group].

Independent Variables (IV)

  • The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variables (DV)

  • The factor measured by the researcher.

Controlled Variables

  • Variables kept constant across all experimental conditions to eliminate potential effects.

Extraneous Variables

  • Unwanted variables that may influence the investigation if not controlled.

Experimental Designs

  • Between Subjects: Includes both experimental and control groups with random allocation.

  • Within Subjects: All participants engage in both conditions, reducing participant differences but may introduce order effects.

  • Mixed Design: Combines elements of both designs to observe differences among experimental groups with 2+ IVs.

Population vs Sample

  • Population: All individuals of interest to the researcher.

  • Sample: Subset of the population tested for the hypothesis.

  • Sampling: Method of selecting participants.

  • Allocation: Method of dividing the sample into groups.

Sampling Methods

  • Convenience Sampling

  • Random Sampling: Equal chance of selection for all members of the population.

  • Stratified Sample: Divides the population into sub-groups and samples proportionately from each.

Data Types

  • Qualitative Data: Information about characteristics being studied.

  • Quantitative Data: Information about quantities being studied.

Ethical Concepts

  • Guiding moral principles for experiments.

    • Beneficence: Maximizing benefits while minimizing risks and harm.

    • Integrity: Honest reporting of findings, both positive and negative.

    • Respect: Considering the rights and values of living subjects.

    • Justice: Ensuring fair consideration of competing claims.

    • Non-maleficence: Striving to avoid harm.

Ethical Guidelines

  • Procedures that ensure participant safety and respect, governed by an ethics committee.

    • Confidentiality: Protecting a participant’s personal information.

    • Voluntary Participation: Participants must willingly choose to participate in the research.

    • Withdrawal Rights: Participants can leave the study without penalty at any time.

    • Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the research before giving consent.

    • Use of Deception: Deliberately misleading participants about the study's nature.

    • Debriefing: Ensuring participants understand the aim, results, and conclusions after the experiment.

Correlational Studies

  • Investigate the relationship between variables without manipulation or control.

  • No IVs, DVs, or control groups.

  • Types of correlation:

    • Positive

    • Negative

    • Zero

Controlled Experiments

  • Test cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

  • Researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV, while controlling EVs.

  • Involves experimental group (exposed to IV) and control group (not exposed).

Strengths:

  • Produces objective, primary data

  • Allows for greater control over variables

Limitations:

  • Can be time-consuming and expensive

Case Studies

  • In-depth study of a specific group, individual, or phenomenon (e.g., Phineas Gage).

  • Commonly used for rare cases.

Strengths:

  • Provides detailed information

  • Can generate hypotheses for further research

Limitations:

  • Time-consuming

  • Findings cannot be generalised

Classification and Identification

  • Classification: Organising phenomena into groups for functional/theoretical benefits

  • Identification: Recognising phenomena as part of existing or new sets

Fieldwork

  • Research conducted outside a lab through observation and interaction

  • Primarily used to determine correlation, not causation

Types of Fieldwork:

  • Direct Observation

  • Qualitative Interviews

  • Questionnaires

  • Focus Groups

  • Yarning Circles

Literature Review

  • Collation and analysis of secondary data to:

    • Answer research questions

    • Provide background for primary investigations

Modelling

  • Representation of systems or concepts

Types:

  • Physical models (e.g., plastic brain)

  • Conceptual models (e.g., multi-store model of memory)

Product, Process or System Development

  • Designing/evaluating artefacts, processes, or systems to meet human needs

  • Combines scientific knowledge with technological applications

Examples:

  • Meditation apps

  • Sleep tracking devices

  • EEG headsets

  • Prosthetic limbs

  • Transplants

Simulation

  • Using a model to study real/theoretical system behaviour

  • Ideal when testing is impractical, dangerous, or complex

Self-Reports

  • Participants provide written or verbal responses to researcher prompts

Includes:

  • Questionnaires

  • Focus groups

  • Interviews

  • Rating scales

Strengths:

  • Gathers detailed, potentially anonymous responses

  • Efficient for large samples

Limitations:

  • Memory failure may affect accuracy

  • Responses may be difficult to quantify

  • Subject to interpretation bias