Psych Unit 3 AOS2

Learning

• Is a relatively permanent change in behavior and cognition that occurs as a result of experience.

• Learning can be intentional or unintentional.

• Learning can be easy or difficult.

• There are few behaviors that cannot be learned (reflex actions, maturation, and fixed action patterns in animals).

• Learning happens in a variety of ways.

Behaviorist Approaches

• Theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment. They focus on behaviors that can be directly observed and recorded:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Learning where a neutral stimulus (researcher/bell) creates a specific response (salivation) as a result of being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

Three Phase Model

• Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs in three stages:

  1. Before Conditioning:

     • Neutral Stimulus leads to no relevant response.

     • Unconditioned Stimulus leads to the Unconditioned Response.

  2. During Conditioning (Acquisition):

     • The Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired and presented immediately prior to the Unconditioned Stimulus, which leads to the Unconditioned Response.

  3. After Conditioning:

     • The Conditioned Stimulus (formerly the Neutral Stimulus) leads to the Conditioned Response (formerly Unconditioned Response).

Important Factors

• Classical Conditioning only relates to behaviors that were initially automatic or involuntary.

• Classical Conditioning only occurs when two stimuli are associated; the NS must be presented just prior to or at the same time as the UCS.

• Frequency and timing of stimulus presentation affect the strength of Classical Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

• A learning process in which the likelihood of a particular behavior occurring is determined by the consequences of that behavior.

  • Operant: A response (or set of responses) that occurs and acts (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of effect.

  • Behavior can be strengthened if the consequences are positive and weakened if the consequences are negative.

  • The learner in operant conditioning is active.

Skinner’s ABC Model

• The conditions needed for the behavior to occur can be referred to as the A-B-C of operant conditioning:

  • A: Antecedent stimulus (Discriminative Stimulus) that makes conditions right for the Behavior to follow and be reinforced by its Consequences.

Reinforcement

• Any positive stimulus (action or event) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behavior).

  • Can be positive reinforcement (giving something desirable) or negative reinforcement (taking away something undesirable).

  • Positive Reinforcement: Following a desired behavior, the learner is given a pleasant stimulus which strengthens behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement: The removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus increases the likelihood of a response being repeated.

  Both types lead to an increase in the likelihood of a response in the future.

Punishment

• Any stimulus (action or event) that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response (behavior).

  • Can be positive punishment (giving something undesirable) or negative punishment (taking away something desirable).

  • Positive Punishment: Following undesired behavior, the learner is given an unpleasant stimulus which weakens behavior.

  • Negative Punishment: Following undesired behavior, the learner has a pleasant stimulus removed which weakens behavior.

  Both punishment and response cost lead to a decrease in the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

Timing of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement is given after every correct response, essential in the acquisition stage but not effective for maintaining maximal response rate.

• Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing after some responses, but not all of them, used after the acquisition stage and leads to stronger, less easily extinguished responses.

Effectiveness of Punishment

• Frequent punishment may lead to frustration, aggression, and feelings of helplessness towards the punisher (e.g., judges targeted by criminals they have sentenced).

• Make an alternative desired response available and reinforce it.

• Children may resent parents or teachers who punish them, even when fair and appropriate.

• Punishment may reinforce behavior if attention is desired.

Effectiveness of Consequences

• Order of Presentation: Reinforcement or punishment should always occur after a desired response and be consistent.

• Appropriateness: Personal characteristics and individual situations should be considered when deciding if a stimulus will reinforce or punish.

• Timing: Reinforcement or punishment is most effective when given immediately after the response occurs.