Introduction to Psychology
Theory vs hypothesis: definitions and roles
What is a theory?
A theory is an explanation for how and why a phenomenon happens, synthesizing evidence across studies.
It explains what lying looks like and addresses underlying causes for lying.
It’s a framework to understand patterns in mind and behavior and to make predictions.
What is a hypothesis?
An educated guess about a future outcome of specific variables within a study.
Hypotheses are testable predictions derived from a broader theory.
Example in depression therapy:
A hypothesis could be that a new therapy reduces depression more than a control condition.
Represented as a comparison of means: \mu{\text{depression, treatment}} < \mu{\text{depression, control}}.
In a study, you test whether the treatment differs from the control.
Relationship between theory and hypothesis:
The theory provides the overarching explanation.
The hypothesis tests a specific prediction derived from that theory within a study.
Theory vs hypothesis in practice:
A theory is tested through many studies with different hypotheses,
Results are used to refine or revise the theory.
Grand theories vs midrange theories:
Grand theories aimed to explain all of human behavior but proved too broad.
Midrange theories focus on more specific phenomena or domains.
The scientific process (cyclical):
Start with theory → observe a phenomenon → formulate a question → develop a hypothesis → design a study → collect data → analyze results → determine if hypothesis is supported or not → publish → others test and extend → theory is revised or extended.
Always avoid saying a theory is proved; findings support or refute aspects of it.
The role of theories in psychology:
Theories organize observations, make predictions, and guide research and practice.
They are feed-forward and feedback into the research cycle.
Examples of theories in psychology:
Attachment theory (developmental psychology): early caregiver–child interactions influence later outcomes.
Cognitive dissonance theory: explains discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts and how that can motivate change.
Applied vs basic psychology:
Basic psychology focuses on understanding mind and behavior without an explicit goal of change.
Applied psychology uses theories to design interventions and improve outcomes in real-world populations.
Both share the same experimental and data-collection processes, but applied psychology emphasizes real-world populations and programs, cost-effectiveness, and measurable outcomes.
Distinction in outcomes and populations:
Applied psychology aims to produce beneficial changes in behavior, thoughts, or emotions and is often evaluated for effectiveness and cost.
Basic psychology is not inherently aimed at changing outcomes, though findings may later be applied.
How theories support practice: a theory can inform therapy or intervention design (theory of change).
What is a theory of change?
A framework used in applied psychology to connect activities to outcomes and explain how change is expected to occur.
Theories of change and social impact
The first theory of change introduced in the content: Social Norm Theory.
What is a social norm?
The unspoken rules of society that guide behavior.
Norms vary in importance; breaking a norm can lead to social disapproval depending on its significance.
Consequences of violating norms:
Shame, isolation, confusion, stigma, and potential disapproval that can be verbal or nonverbal.
Outcomes depend on the norm’s importance to the group; some norms carry stronger penalties than others.
The role of social norms in group and cultural contexts:
Norms exist at multiple levels: societal, peer group, family, relationships, communities.
People adapt behavior to fit the norms of different groups (e.g., sports teammates vs. grandparents).
Why social norms matter for behavior change:
If people perceive norms accurately, they can be nudged toward healthier or more pro-social behaviors.
Misperceptions can lead to risky behaviors (e.g., binge drinking if students overestimate how common it is).
Misperception and social norms:
Undergraduates often misperceive how much others engage in binge drinking; correcting misperceptions reduces risky behavior.
Examples of social norm applications and experiments:
Recycling and environmental actions can be influenced by visible actions and norms.
The ice bucket challenge leveraged status and norms among celebrities and peers to drive participation.
Campaigns using social proof in health, environment, and crime reduction can be powerful.
Real-world uses and cautions:
Social norms can be used to design interventions that encourage positive behavior change (e.g., exercise groups, accountability in running clubs).
Effectiveness varies by context; some situations require additional theories.
Cross-cultural and group differences:
Norms differ across cultures (e.g., changes observed during a stay in Japan vs. North America).
Even within shared cultures, subgroups have distinct norms.
Practical takeaways for health and public campaigns:
Use accurate descriptive norms to correct misperceptions.
Consider group-specific norms and how to align messages with those norms.
Norm-based interventions may involve direct nudges, information, or visible behavior demonstrations.
Self-efficacy theory (Bandura): beliefs about capability
Core idea: self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to perform actions and achieve outcomes.
High self-efficacy → stronger belief in success; low self-efficacy → doubt in ability to succeed.
Key components of self-efficacy (theory-derived):
Mastery experiences: successful completion of challenging tasks increases self-efficacy; failure can reduce it unless mitigated by other factors.
Vicarious experiences: observing others similar to oneself succeed can boost belief in one’s own abilities.
Verbal persuasion: external encouragement (e.g., coaches, teachers) or internal self-persuasion can enhance self-efficacy.
States: emotional, psychological, and physiological conditions (e.g., illness, stress) influence perceived efficacy.
Varieties of self-efficacy:
General (global) self-efficacy: broad belief in one’s overall capability to handle tasks.
Task-specific self-efficacy: belief in one’s ability to perform a particular task (e.g., mastering a math problem).
These can diverge; people may have high general self-efficacy but lower for specific tasks, or vice versa.
Benefits of high self-efficacy:
Increases motivation, persistence, and resilience in the face of obstacles.
Helps re-interpret outcomes and persist rather than give up.
Limitations and caveats:
Overinflated or false self-efficacy can occur (narcissism or unrealistic beliefs) and may not reflect real ability.
Even with high self-efficacy, external constraints or actual skill gaps can prevent success.
Low self-efficacy often leads to task avoidance, lower effort, and quicker giving up; it can be changed under the right conditions.
Practical implications for program design:
Interventions can aim to raise self-efficacy to improve motivation and adherence (e.g., educational or health programs).
Identify whether to target global or task-specific self-efficacy depending on goals.
Efficacy and outcome expectations:
High self-efficacy supports persistence and better coping when facing challenges.
Self-efficacy can influence how people reinterpret outcomes (e.g., attributing success to effort and strategy rather than luck).
Interaction with emotions and health:
States (emotional and physiological) can undermine or support self-efficacy.
Important caveat in practice:
Self-efficacy alone does not guarantee success; it interacts with actual ability, resources, and external conditions.
Applied psychology in practice and organizational examples
The broader aim of applied psychology:
To use theories to change thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in real-world populations.
Emphasis on outcomes, program design, and accountability to funders and the public.
Societal-level change and campaigns:
Psychology can impact individuals, communities, and national programs.
Examples include local food programs, National Seniors Day, and public health campaigns to reduce smoking, promote exercise, etc.
Cost, accountability, and evidence:
Large-scale programs (e.g., nation-wide campaigns) require substantial funding and accountability to taxpayers.
Strong evidence bases are essential to justify spending and ensure effectiveness.
The Social Change UK example (illustrative):
A private organization combining research, psychology, design, marketing, and PR to drive change.
Offers more than 30 different research techniques to uncover actionable insights.
Uses psychology and behavioral theory to understand what makes people tick; uses design to inspire change; uses marketing to build emotional connections.
Clients include government departments, local authorities, NHS organizations, and large private companies.
Their approach emphasizes the real-world application of research to campaigns that change behavior (e.g., recycling, moving more, healthier eating, reducing crime).
Their work has received awards for effectiveness in driving change.
Not only academics apply these ideas:
Professors, researchers, and students in universities use psychology to inform practice, but private companies, NGOs, and government bodies also employ researchers and planners.
Why pursue a career in applied psychology?
For those who are not pursuing academia, there are many options to use psychology to influence real-world outcomes in non-profit, governmental, or commercial settings.
Closing notes and bridge to next class
Change is not always easy, especially when it involves moving people to adopt new behaviors.
Key takeaway: understanding people is central to making change happen; with the right ingredients, change is possible.
The upcoming class will continue with the theories and their applications, potentially discussing more about how to design and evaluate interventions.
There is an emphasis on evidence-based practice and building interventions that consider norms, self-efficacy, and real-world constraints.
The instructor reminded students they were joining a community (Social Change UK) that blends research, psychology, design, and marketing to achieve societal goals, illustrating that theory-to-practice can cross sectors.
Important equations and explicit notes to remember
Hypothesis example (one-tailed test):
H0: \mu{\text{treatment}} \ge \mu{\text{control}} \quad\text{vs.}\quad Ha: \mu{\text{treatment}} < \mu{\text{control}}.
Depression therapy example hypothesis:
\mu{\text{depression, treatment}} < \mu{\text{depression, control}}.
No other explicit mathematical formulas were presented in the transcript, but the above illustrate how hypotheses are typically framed in quantitative studies.