HDFS 2950 Exam 2

CHAPTER 7: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

What is Cognition?:

• The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge 

• Understanding through thought, experience, and the senses 

• Words related to cognition: thinking, thoughts, thought process, mental process 

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

• Basic principles 

  • Most lasting contribution: intelligence is active, constructive, and dynamic 

  • According to Piaget, “making sense” involves organizing our experiences into schemas 

  • Basic processes of learning: assimilation and accommodation

  • When something doesn’t fit our schemas, we are thrown into a state of disequilibrium: state of confusion 

• Key Ideas 

  • Schemas help us make sense of the world 

  • Assimilation and accommodation are key mechanisms of cognitive development, moving from concrete thinking to abstract thinking 

  • Children thinking differently-quantitatively (less info and skill) and qualitative skills in thinking (due to meaning making)

• Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage

  • Birth to 2 yrs 

  • 3 general tenses in development within this period 

    • 1. Use reflexes in a more goal-oriented way (1-4 mo.) 

    • 2. Use intentional actions; motor schemas to metal representations (4-8 mo.)

    • Motor schemas: differents actions that an infant's development to organize their understanding of the world 

    • Between 8-12 months, infants combine their motor schemas to begin solving problems

    • Piaget believed that children’s first thoughts are mental representations of the actions they’ve been performing 

    • Development of object permanence: to know 

• Stage 2: Preoperational Stage 

  • Ages 2-7 

  • Use mental symbols, but do not yet think logically 

  • Lack operations, mental actions following systematic rules 

  • Use of symbols 

    • Fantasy play 

    • Language 

    • Drawings 

•   Thinking is egocentric and intuitive: the “why” stage 

• Transductive reasoning 

  • Logic move freely, not inductive or deductive

  • More influenced by what they perceive, shaped by experience 

• Egocentric: inability to see or understand other’s perspective 

• Animism: giving human characteristics to things or objects (eg. toy story)

• Conservation-Based on centration- a tendency towards focusing on one aspect of a situation

• Video: Conservation Experiment 

  • Thought taller glass had more water– had the same 

  • Thought the row more spaced out had more quarters after she just counted 

  • Gave child 1 graham cracker and adult 2. Child said it was not fair, adult split the child’s in half and the child said it was fair

• Stage 3: Concrete Operations 

  • Ages 7-12 

  • Concrete operations: children think logically, but limited to concrete thinking- not abstractly 

  • Reversibility: ability to reverse mental operations (if 1+2=3, then 2-1=1)

  • Classification: skills that are based on understanding how objects fit into categories 

Seriation: ability to put objects in order by some quality; size, length, age, etc

CHAPTER 8: Intelligence and Academic Achievement 

Intelligence:

• Intelligence: ability to adapt, think and learn, and to understand oneself and others 

  • g or general factor that underlies intelligence

  • s is specific factors for intelligence

• Fluid intelligence: ability to solve novel problems, with little training, effective and quickly, peaks in 20s 

• Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge, increases with age, draw on knowledge to solve problems

• Some scholars believe there is no generalized intelligence that underlies all mental abilities 

• A child’s IQ is determined by both genetic and environmental factors that start from prenatal period 

Nature vs Nurture: 

• In a study published in 2016, Makharia et al studied environmental factors on intelligence quotient of children 

• Found that various environmental factors were important: 

  • Place of residence 

  • Physical exercise 

  • Family income 

  • Parent’s occupation and education 

• Essential for children to be provided with an optimal environment to develop to their full genetic potential

Defining and Assessing Intelligence: 

• History of Intelligence Tests: 

  • Intelligence quotient (IQ): single number representing general level of intelligence 

  • Deviation IQ: based on norms and deviations (bell curve) 

  • Developmental quotient is best for infant tests- to assess physical and motor skills; strongly correlated with intelligence in preschool, but decreased correlation over time 

  • Attention processing speed, and memory in infancy have been found to predict general intelligence at age 11

  • EQ- emotional quotient, popularized by Daniel Goleman 

WISC: 

• The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is an individually administered intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16

  • 5th Ed. is most recent version 

  • Takes about 45-65 mins to administer

  • Generates a Full Scale IQ 

• Provides 5 Primary Index Scores: 

  • Verbal Comprehension

  • Visual Spatial 

  • Fluid Reasoning 

  • Working Memory 

  • Processing Speed 

    • These indices represent a child’s abilities in discrete cognitive domains 

Types of Testing: 

• Standardized Testing and Alternative Testing 

• 2 general types 

  • Aptitude tests: designed to predict future performance; aptitude is capacity to learn 

  • Achievement tests: designer to assess what person has learned 

• There are advantages and disadvantages to using standardized tests and criticism as well 

• Alternative forms of testing

Emotional Intelligence Factors: 

• Empathy 

• Social Skill

• Self Awareness

• Self Regulation

• Motivation 

Five Steps of Emotion Coaching by Dr. John Gottman: 

• Step 1: Be aware of your child’s emotions 

• Step 2: Recognize emotion as an opportunity for connection or teaching 

• Step 3: Help your child verbally label emotions 

• Step 4: Communicate empathy and understanding

• Step 5: Set limits and problem solve 

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence:

• Many ways to express intelligence

• Lacks of neurological evidence 

• Appeal of plurality of intellect 

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: 

• Believed that living a successful life involved entails using 3 types of intelligence to best interact with environment 

  • Analytic 

  • Creative 

  • Practical 

Variations in Intellectual Ability: 

• According to American Psychiatric Association- Intellectual disability (retardation) involves problem with general mental abilities that affect functioning in these areas: 

  • Intellectual: (learning, problem solving, judgement) 

  • Adaptive: (practical activities of daily life such as communication and independent living)

• Intellectual disability affects about 1% of population 

• Of those, 85% have mild intellectual disabilities 

Variations in Intellectual Ability: 

• ID replaced the DSM-IV term “mental retardation” 

• ID is classified under the Neurodevelopmental Disorders section of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition 

• DSM-5 does not use intelligence quotient (IQ) cutoffs for severity level of ID (mild, moderate, severe, profound), but rather impairments in conceptual, social, and practical domains 

• Males are more likely than females to be diagnosed with intellectual disability 

• A full scale IQ score of ~70 to 75 indicates a significant limitation in intellectual functioning 

• IQ score must be interpreted in context of the person’s difficulties in general mental abilities 

• Scores on subscales can greatly vary 

• Full scale IQ score may not accurately reflect overall intellectual functioning 

• Intervention programs are important and beneficial  

Specific Learning Disorders: 

• A single, overarching category for a SLD paired with specifiers for difficulties with academic domains (math, reading, writing) 

• Diagnosis requires:

  • Persistent disability with performance and 

  • Substantially below average on a test of skill that cannot be better explained by another problem 

• Potentially caused by genetics or prenatal exposure to drugs or alcohol 

• There are social, emotional, and behavioral challenges for children with a learning disorder 

  • Reading (dyslexia) 

  • Writing (dysgraphia) 

  • Spelling 

  • Maths (dyscalculia) 

  • Auditory processing 

  • Visual processing 

  • Sensory - motor 

  • Social (including self-esteem, transition) 

Giftedness: 

• Gifted/talented kids function at a very high level 

• 3 ring model of giftedness 

  • Above-average intellectual ability 

  • Creativity 

  • Task commitment 

• Tension over enrichment and accelerated programs in schools 

• Children who are “profoundly gifted” need specialized education

• Gifted students are at risk of dropping out of school because they are too smart for their current school 

Creativity and Intelligence: 

• Positive, but low correlation between creativity and intelligence 

• Ability to see multiple solutions to a problem or divergent thinking (vs convergent thinking) 

• Big-C creativity: transforms a culture by impacting the way people think or live their lives 

• Small-c creativity: used to deal with everyday problems

• Lack of education fosters creativity

Academic Achievement: Non-Cognitive Factors: 

• Self-control (self-regulation)

  • Exclusively studied 

  • Predicts changes in report card grades; better than IQ scores 

  • Important for academic outcomes 

  • Intrinsic motivation: do task for the joy or interest of it; self motivation

  • Extrinsic motivation: depends on reward from environment

  • Motivational resilience: motivated in the face of setback 

  • Motivational vulnerability: becoming discouraged following a setback 

  • Children with motivational resilience use adaptive strategies such as help-seeking, strategizing, and self-encouragement

  • Academic Mindsets are deeply held beliefs about the nature of learning and intelligence 

  • Crucial aspects of mindsets is whether you believe that intelligence is fixed or developed 

  • Idea that intelligence can be changed with determination and hard work is a growth mindset

Gender and Academic Achievement: 

• Girls outperform boys in school-grades, GT classes, not being retained as often, in special education, or expelled 

• In HS, girls outperform boys; more likely to quit school 

• Girls also have higher enrollment and graduation in college and obtain advanced degrees 

• Difference becomes greater for children from low SES families, minority children, and children from lower-quality schools

• Girls outperform boys in math, yet STEM fields greater segregated 

• Sexists attitudes, messages, and implicit associations still persist among teachers and parents- girls internalize these beliefs 

Early Childhood Disparities: 

• Family and child focused policies in US need to improve 

• Head Start program initiated to break the cycle of poverty 

• Had positive outcomes; yet systemic, institutional, and structural racism shaped policies; grave inequalities persist 

• Although Head Start program is culturally responsive, not every child has access to early intervention and education 

• African Americans and Hispanic children continue to face racism; labeled problematic or challenged by teachers 

• Factors such as these, among others lead to low literacy

Early Language Literacy: 

• 30 million word gap study (Hart and Risley, 1995) 

• Data showed children living in poverty hear 30 million fewer words by age 4 than higher income children 

  • Low income children: know 500 words by age 3 

  • Working-class children: know 700 words by age 3 

  • Professional families: know 1,100 words by age 3 

• Quantity of speech is a proxy for the quality of children’s early language experience (what does this mean?)

• Parents who talk more with their children tend to use more of the rich vocabulary, complex ideas, and back-and-forth conversation known to promote language growth 

Unequal at the Start: Early Childhood Programs Pay Dividends for Life: 

• Investment in early childhood education is necessary to increase equity, human capital, and economic growth

• Educational investments during early childhood yield the highest return in human capital compared to other investments

Effects of Poverty and Academic Achievement: 

• Lower levels of cognitive development (not ability) 

• Increasing difficulty of catching up 

• School’s ability to maintain strong sustaining environment

SES and Early Childhood Education: 

• Early learning is enhanced by what happens in preschool - but ~ ½ of US children don’t receive early childhood education

• Many-low income parents cannot afford high-quality preschool, if any preschool at all 

• Many children are not starting from the same point early on in life, hence, unequal from the start 

• Not by ability, talent, or potential, but because social inequalities prohibit them from attending

Grade Retention: 

• Social promotion: children who have not mastered grade-level material promoted to next grade 

• Hispanic and Black boys and low SES children at higher risk for being retained 

• Studies show that children have short-term gain for being “held back” but have poorer long-term outcomes 

• Some states require children to be retained if not reading by 3rd grade 

• National Education Association calling for more comprehensive approach

Dropouts and Graduates: 

• HS dropout rates have decreased in the US 

• GED and other test options have helped 

• Clear factors associated with dropping out 

  • Black and Hispanic youth continue to be more likely to drop out than non-Hispanic White or Asian youth 

  • In 2016, the dropout rate was slightly higher for males (7%) than females (5%).

• Trajectory begins in preschool 

• Non-college bound students 

  • ~⅓ of teens do not go to college 

  • Needs vocational pathways for success 

College-Bound students: 

• ~⅔ of HS graduates in US enroll in college fall semester 

• Some better prepared than others for many reasons (SES, opportunities, “tracked”)

• SAT/ACT not strong predictors of success in college for first generation students; GPA is better predictor 

• Stress of transitioning from HS to college 

• Resources necessary for college success

Long-Term Impact of Early Education: 

• Early literacy good indicator for school success

• Ethnic/racial minority children who have low SES disproportionately at-risk for problems with literacy success

•  Low literacy associated with long-term social problems- truancy, delinquency, unemployment 

• Low SES boys especially need targeted programs to help them succeed 

• SES is correlated with achievement

• Education is key to solving broader inequality related to race and gender 

• Solving educational inequality is key 

• Dr. Ferguson, Director of The Achievement Gap Initiative at Harvard University, says there is a progress being made, but an early start is critical and there is a lot of work left to be done 

• Educational inequality is the root of broader inequality

What is Required for School Readiness: 

• 6 caregiver/parent strategies 

  • Encourage exploration 

  • Mentor basic skills 

  • Celebrate developmental advances 

  • Research and extend new skills 

  • Protect from inappropriate disapproval, punishment, teasing 

  • Guide and limit behavior 

Strongest Predictors for Later Achievement: 

• Longitudinal study using 6 data sets examined factors linked to school readiness and assessed extent to which predicted later achievement in reading in math 

• Strongest predictors were: 

  • School-entry level math 

  • Reading 

  • Attention skills 

• Other studies demonstrated importance of children’s: 

  • Socioemotional development 

  • Regulating emotions 

  • Getting along with others (strongly emphasized in Japan)

CHAPTER 9: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Aspects of Language: 

• Language = system of symbols used to communicate

• 5 different aspects of language 

  • Phonology: study of the sounds of a language 

  • Morphology: the way words are formed from sounds and how these words are related 

  • Syntax: grammar of language

  • Semantics: meaning of words 

  • Pragmatics: how you use language in social situations

Language and the Brain: 

• Language is largely localized in the left side of the brain although both sides are used differently 

• Two areas central to language

1. Broca’s Area: Active in the production of speech - located near motor center of brain that produces movement of tongue and lips 

1. Prefrontal cortex 

2. Wernicke’s Area: help in understanding and creating meaning in speech - located near auditory cortex

1. Close to ear 

Theories of Language Development:

• Behaviorism and social cognitive theory - other people reinforce infants’ speech. Infants imitate the speech they hear 

• Nativism - infants’ brains are innately wired to learn language 

• Interactionism - biological readiness and social interaction together bring about language development

• Statistical Learning - infants brains use the statistical probabilities in the language they hear to understand words

Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory:

• Based on external forces and reinforcement; makes behavior continue 

• Child learns what they are taught 

• Interactionism: language development 

• Language created socially 

Nativism:

• Noam Chamsky believed the opposite of behaviorism and social cognitive theory (environmental forces) 

• He believed our brains are innately wired to learn language

• Language acquisition device (LAD): part of the brain triggered when hearing language 

• Helps kids extract principles and rules for language from what they hear- over exaggeration

• Universal grammar - grammar hardwired into our brains

Interactionism:

• Both a child’s readiness to learn in their experience in their environment work together to help a child develop language abilities 

• Language is socially created in the interaction between infant and caregiver

Statistical Learning: 

• Infants understanding of language is learned, not innate 

• Learning relies on the general info processing abilities of the human brain

• Currently thought of as “generalized learning mechanism” theory 

• Transitional probability: kids learn the likelihood of certain sounds and syllables that go together 

• “Data crunching”

Critical Period of Language Development: 

• Dr. Patricia Kuhl shares findings about how babies learn one language over another

• By listening to the humans around them and “takin statistic” on the sound they need to know 

• Brain scans show how 6-month babies use sophisticated reasoning to understand the world

• Infants and children who are grossly neglected or deprived of language stimulation may have lifelong difficulties or inability to develop language

• Greatest window of opportunity for syntax and grammar is between birth to five years of age 

• The earlier they are exposed to language, the easier it is for them to understand and produce speech 

Stages of language development:

• Prenatal foundation: language learning begins before birth as the fetus can hear voices in the womb 

  • Infants prefer the language their mother speaks to them as a newborn

• Pre-verbal perception of language: 

  • Babies are born with the ability to distinguish the sounds made in all languages but gradually lose some of the ability 

Infants Language Development: 

• Crying, cooing, babbling 

  • Crying= reflexive, hen communicative behavior 

  • Cooing= soft vowel sounds 

• Proconversational 

• Joint attention: both look at the same item and check to see if the other is looking, helps infant sustain attention, pointing and gestures 

• Infant-directed speech: specific way to talk to babies, universal (mother ease)

• Prosody: intonation, stress pattern, loudness variation, pausing and rhythm 

  • Express with children by varying pitch, duration, loudness

Conversational Turns are Important:

• Using MRIs, researchers identified differences in brain's response to language that correlated with number of conversational turns 

• More conversation = brain is more active while listening to stories 

• Brain activation then predicted children’s scores on language assessments 

• New data shows that number of conversational turns and quality of speech matter most; better predictor of language development than SES

Stages:

• Telegraphic speech: simplest combination of words in the right order, leaving out unnecessary words 

• Young child’s grammar needs to respond to the child’s content, how they say something 

• Site words: most commonly used words - the, it, and 

• Visual memory of words - based on how they look 

Early Childhood: 

• Increased proficiency in understanding and producing vocabulary and grammar

• Egocentric speech- inability of young children to take take the role 

Middle Childhood:

• Communication becomes more advanced 

• Discourse skills: ability to understand whether a story or info makes sense

• Metalinguistic: where children think about language and how it is used 

  • Used language in new ways 

Literacy and Reading: 

• Early childhood reading is very important

• Emergent literacy: the early stage kids go through before they can read and write

• Dialogic reading: technique of adult and child actively talk about the book- great benefits for comprehension and vocabulary

Writing Skills:

• Influence of fine motor skills development and electronic communication

• Invented spelling words and texting does not appear to have negative consequences

• Compositional skills: affected by the quality of their knowledge of the subject and understanding of writing processes- planning, organizing thoughts, rules, editing process 

• Important for children to have effective teachers for optimal learning

Bilingualism and Bilingual Education:

• Growing up bilingual 

  • Helps, not hurt, cognitive development

  • Develops metalinguistic skills that helps kids understand and think about language in more advanced ways

• Bilingual education-common types of programs 

  • Immersion programs

  • English as a second language (ESL) pull-out programs 

  • Transitional bilingual education programs

  • Developmental bilingual programs 

  • Two-way immersion programs

• Culture, identity, and bilingualism- important for many parents that children speak their heritage language 

• Related to positive ethnic identity development 

• Tends to decrease by 3rd generation

American Sign Language: 

• ASL is primary language of many who are deaf or hard of hearing

• No universal sign language

• Regional variations in rhythm, pronunciation, slang, and signs used

• Great variety due to demographic and sociological factors (age, etc)

• Deaf child born to parents who are deaf and who already use ASL will begin to acquire ASL as naturally as a hearing child picks up spoken language from hearing parents 

• ~9/10 children who are born deaf peers and become fluent 

• Parents should expose a deaf or hard of hearing child to language (spoken or signed) ASAP

• Early learning linked to language, cognitive, and social development

• Babies are screened for hearing when they are born 

Communication and Language Disorders:

• According to the DSM5, there are various communication disorders that affect children’s ability to listen, speak, and used language appropriately

• Early identification and treatment is important 

• Autism spectrum disorder: language is central to this disorder; verbal and non-verbal communication

• Dyslexia: a language-based learning disorder

Dyslexia: 

• According to Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, children and adults will often have the following challenges and features: 

  • Trouble matching letters on the page, with sounds 

  • May be hard to read fluently, spell words, and learn second language

  • No connection to their overall intelligence 

  • Often slow readers, but fast and creative thinkers with strong reasoning 

  • Very common, affecting 20% of US population 

  • Representing 80-90% of all of those with learning disabilities

  • Research shows differences in brain connectivity; not vision impairment 

  • Certain interventions help teach kids management strategies

CHAPTER 10: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ATTACHMENT

Emotions- Universality and Difference:

• What is Emotion?

  • Complex experience- includes physiological reaction, interpretation, communication with another, actions 

  • Emojis help use convey meaning- developed in Japan and used world-wide

  • Emotional expression in mediated by culture, language, gender socialization, temperament, and personality 

  • 6 basic emotions: 

    • Happiness 

    • Sadness 

    • Fear

    • Anger 

    • Interest 

    • Disgust 

Early Emotional Development: 

• Area of infant/toddler emotions is a relatively new area of study

• Most research focused on physical development 

• Adults are surprised to know that babies have a range of emotions

• First they react with quick uncensored reactions, and responses become more complex over time 

Emotional Development: 

• As always, culture and experience influence the norms of development 

• This is especially true for emotional development after the first 8 months 

Early Emotions: 

• Crying 

  • Typical- way to communicate 

  • Excessive- more than 3 hrs per day 

  • Colic- excessive crying, result of immature digestion

Emotional Development- Toddlers: 

• Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused 

•  Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating

• Temper tantrums may appear 

• New “self-conscious emotions” 

  • Pride, shame 

  • Jealousy, embarrassment

  • Disgust, guilt 

• Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture 

• By age 2, most display entire spectrum of emotions and begin to regulate their reactions 

Self-Awareness: 

• Realization of being a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people

  • 1-4 months: infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers 

  • 5 months: infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers 

  • 15-18 months: emergence of the me-self. Sense of self as the “object’s of one’s knowledge” 

Mirror Recognition:

• Classic experiment conducted by Lewis and Brooks 

  • 9-24 month olds looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge have been put on their noses 

  • None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them 

  • 15 to 24 month olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity 

Still Face Experiment (Video):

• Experiment to study how the child will response to the caregiver’s face

• What are the effects on the child when the parent is responsive vs not responsive 

  • Not responsive- Still Face: child quickly gets upset (screams, cries, throws arms) when they do not receive the normal response from mom

  • Responsive: child laughs and is happy when mom becomes responsive to the baby again

Growth of the Brain and Stress:

• Hypothalamus

  • Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production

  • May grow more slowly in stressed than in non-stressed infants 

• Abuse (a form of chronic stress)

  • May cause potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional development 

  • High levels of stress becomes indicative of emotional impairment and later behavioral difficulties 

  • Excessive stress in children must be prevented 

Temperament: 

• Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation 

• Thought to be epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices

• We may be born with temperament, but our environment can affect the expression of this 

• Rothbart’s research define temperament as biologically based difference in reactivity and self-regulation 

• 3 higher order factors shaping temperament

  • Extraversion, negative emotion, and self-control 

• Emotion Schemas: mental structures and processes that shape the way we think about emotions 

• Social Contagion Theory: child mimics emotions and anxieties of caregivers 

Temperament- 3 basic types: 

1. Easy (40%): positive mood, quickly establishes routine, adapts easily 

2. Difficult (10%): reacts negatively, cries frequently, irregular routines, slow to accept change 

3. Slow to warm up (15%): low activity level, low intensity of mood, somewhat negative 

• Hard to classify (35%) 

Development of Emotions- The Role of Self and Others: 

• Social Referencing; child understands emotions by looking at how others react 

• Infants look to others for social referencing in different types of situations- empathy and sympathy

• Parental Social Referencing: parents use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants 

Development of Social Bonds: 

• Synchrony 

  • Coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant 

  • “In-Sync” in tune 

  • The higher the synchrony, the stronger the bond 

  • Synchrony, attachment, and social referencing are all apparent with fathers, depending on their level of contact 

Role of Empathy and Sympathy: 

• Empathy: experiencing the feelings of others; can begin in first year 

• Sympathy: sharing another’s distress; important foundation for demonstrating pro-social behavior in later years 

• Parents who talk about emotions and mental states with their young children, often are more likely to show concern for others in distress, comfort others, and share more quickly with those in need 

• Lack of empathy in childhood associated with serious problems in teen and adult years 

• Secure attachment with parents associated with higher level of empathy during adolescence 

Emotion Regulation and Self-Control: 

• Emotional intelligence: understanding emotions to navigate human interaction

• Emotional regulation: 

  • Adjusting feelings to cope with an experience 

  • Control emotional expression

  • Able to use emotions in a positive way 

  • This ability is learned 

• Self-control:

  • Effortful control: ability to control own behavior 

  • Delay of gratification: resist immediate reward if promised larger, future reward 

• Infant’s can begin emotional regulation by self-soothing and subtle signaling 

• Adults are powerful models for regulating emotions and behaviors for toddlers 

• Parental emotion coaching help kids explore their feelings 

• Emotion dismissing: when parents minimize importance of emotions 

• Learning to regulate emotions in early childhood has lasting benefits 

Hansei: 

• Some cultures value self-control more than others

• Cultural practice of hansei in Japan 

• Teaches children to self-evaluate own behavior and think of ways to improve

Sadness and Depression: 

• Major depression: long-lasting and severe enough to affect the individual to affect the individual physically, emotionally, cognitively, and socially

• Young children less common, but cannot verbalize it 

• Increasingly common among teens

• Relationship between depression and anxiety disorder 

Managing Emotions- Anxiety: 

• Externalizing behaviors: other directed behavior; act out in negative ways 

• Internalizing behaviors: self-directed behavior that is harmful to themselves 

• Fears: more pronounced for younger children 

• Anxiety is normal to an extent; extreme anxiety is not. It is the anticipation of events that may or may not occur 

• Anxiety disorder: when anxiety is so great that it interferes with everyday activities that causes a great deal of distress 

• See chart of page 334

Treatment: 

• Cognitive behavioral therapy: therapist helps individual identify cognitive distortions and replace them 

• Mindfulness-based therapy also helps identify feelings and mind-body connection 

• Depression untreated can lead to suicide; a leading cause of death for teens 15-19

• Suicide ideation and attempts more common than completed suicide 

• Certain groups are more at-risk than others 

• Suicide intervention programs (ex. 13 reasons why not) good to ask and talk about 

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): 

• Aggression is a primary symptom of ODD, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder and conduct disorder 

• ODD is behavioral when confrontation, defiance, and argumentativeness become a part of persistence patterns of behavior 

• Coercive family environment: usually a pattern of confrontation, followed by opposition, defeat for the parent, success for the child 

• Pattern repeats and escalates 

• Intervention programs can help break the cycle, but the younger the child is when the intervention is started, the more likely it will be successful 

Anger and Aggression: 

• Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) 

  • Children between 6 and 10 yrs of age 

  • Severe and recurrent temper outbursts grossly out of proportion in intensity or duration to the situation 

  • 3 or more times per week 

• Conduct disorder: repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior; basic rights of others and or social norms or rules are violated

Attachment Types: 

• Secure (50-70%)

  • Infant obtains both comfort and confidence from presence of his or her caregiver 

• Insecure-avoidant (10-20%)

  • Infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure or return 

• Insecure-resistant/ambivalent (10-20%)

  • Infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion 

• Disorganized (5-10%) 

  • Type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return 

Measuring Attachment: 

• The Attachment Experiment 

• Mary Ainsworth attachment theorist 

The Development of Secure Attachment: 

• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) study 

  • Examined the effects of early childcare on child development 

  • Found that many of the characteristics expected to affect the quality of an infant’’s attachment to parents has very few significant events