APUSH time period 5

AP U.S. History Notes: Period 5 Overview

The fifth period covered on the AP U.S. history exam took place between the years 1844-1877 and is referred to as “Slavery, Civil War, and the Transformation of American Society.” As the United States expanded its borders, economy, and population, sectional tensions—most notably over slavery—led to a civil war. The war and its aftermath dramatically transformed American society, ending the institution of slavery and raising fundamental questions about the nature of American democracy.

The acquisition and settlement of new territories in the western half of the North American continent opened up a question that many politicians had sought to avoid—should these new territories allow slavery? Most northern politicians were not abolitionists; indeed, abolitionism was a minority position in the North in 1850. However, the issue of the expansion of slavery became increasingly divisive in the 1850s. Some northerners adopted the free-soil ideology—the idea that lands out West should be open to small-scale farming, without competition from large-scale plantation agriculture using slave labor. By the end of the decade, more northerners were grappling with the moral issues around slavery. Positions became decidedly more entrenched on the eve of the Civil War.

The importance of the Civil War to American history cannot be overstated. This bloody war settled one of the most vexing issues in American history—the existence of slavery in an otherwise democratic country—and opened up space for broad debates about the substance of democracy in post–Civil War America.

10 Things to Know About AP U.S. History Period 5

1. As the American economy grew between the War of 1812 and the Civil War, many Americans continued the push ever farther into the continent. This westward movement had profound implications for Canada and Mexico as well as for American Indian nations within the borders of the growing United States. Finally, the acquisition of additional territory inflamed sectional tensions, as the debate over the expansion of slavery intensified in the decade before the Civil War.

2. The Mexican-American War proved to be an important turning point in the period leading up to the Civil War. Debates over the status of slavery, American Indians, and Mexicans in these newly acquired lands became heated in the years following the war.

3. As the United States expanded to the West, the question of whether new territories should allow slavery or not led to heated political controversies. These controversies intensified as the United States acquired additional territory in the Mexican-American War. The Compromise of 1850 sought to address these controversies, but resulted in a widening of the sectional rift.

4. Sectional divisions between the North and the South intensified in the decade leading up to the Civil War. These divisions resulted from the ideological debates around slavery, along with regional economic and demographic changes. The status of slavery in new territories brought these debates to the surface.

5. Northern and southern politicians tried repeatedly to compromise on the issue of slavery in the new territories of the United States in the 1850s, but these attempts proved unsuccessful.

6. Whatever trust existed between political leaders of the North and of the South broke down by 1860. The rancorous election of 1860 resulted in the election of the Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln and the secession of the southern states.

7. There are several key factors in understanding the Union victory over the Confederacy. The states that stayed in the Union comprised a larger population and a larger industrial capacity than the secessionist states. Both sides had strengths and weaknesses, but as the war progressed, the strengths of the Union—notably its material and population advantages—became more significant in achieving victory.

8. The decision to shift the focus of the Civil War from maintaining national unity to also eradicating slavery played an important part in the Union victory in the Civil War.

9. The impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on American society was profound. Broadly speaking, the war changed the relationship between the states and the federal government. Specifically, the war made it clear that the United States was indivisible; secession would not be allowed. Most important, the Civil War ended the practice of slavery in the United States. The Civil War and Reconstruction initiated debates over redefining citizenship, especially when it came to women and African Americans.

10. The gains for African Americans during the Reconstruction period were short lived. After white southerners attained “home rule,” they carried out a series of policies that effectively sidestepped the protections of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Violence, and the threat of violence, further eroded the civil rights of African Americans. In addition, economic arrangements evolved that kept African Americans in a state of debt and poverty.

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AP U.S. History Notes: Key Topics in Period 5

Manifest Destiny

“Manifest Destiny:” Many Americans came to believe that it was the “manifest destiny” of the United States to expand westward and extend its power in the Western Hemisphere. Manifest destiny refers to the movement of individuals to the West, but it also alludes to the political extension of United States territory. The term captured the fervor of the westward expansion movement, implying that it was God’s plan that the United States take over and populate the land from coast to coast.

Oregon Trail: Migrants to the West traveled along one of several overland routes. The most famous was the Oregon Trail, a 2,000-mile route from Missouri to the Pacific Northwest.

“Forty-Niners:” A large percentage of the 300,000 people who migrated to California came in 1849, thus their nickname, “Forty-niners.” A few people did strike it rich. However, very soon, the easily accessible gold was panned from riverbeds. Getting access to gold beneath the surface required capital-intensive methods. The necessary machinery was beyond the reach of ordinary prospectors.

The Morrill Land Grant Act: The Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) promoted secondary public education primarily in the West. Under the act, the federal government transferred substantial tracts of its lands to the states. The states could build public colleges on these lands, or they could sell the land to fund the building of educational facilities.

The Pacific Railroad Act: The Pacific Railroad Act (1862) and supplementary acts passed in the 1860s extended government bonds and tracts of land to companies engaged in building transcontinental railroads.

The Homestead Act: The government encouraged development of the West by passing the Homestead Act (1862), which provided free land in the region to settlers who were willing to farm it. The Homestead Act reflected the “free-labor” ideal of the Republicans.

The Mexican-American War

Texas Annexation: The election of 1844 put the issue of Texas annexation on the national agenda. Democratic hopeful James K. Polk promised to push for Texas annexation as well as for a resolution to a border dispute with Great Britain over Oregon, offering something to both southern and northern voters.

Rio Grande: Tensions between the United States and Mexico were brought to the surface due to a dispute over the southern border of the new United States territory of Texas. Mexico said the border was at the Nueces River. The United States insisted it was at the Rio Grande (the present-day border between Texas and Mexico), 150 miles to the south. In 1846, skirmishes in the disputed area led to war between Mexico and the United States.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: In 1848, the Mexican government signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, giving up its claims to the disputed territory in Texas and agreeing to sell the provinces of California and New Mexico, known as the Mexican Cession, to the United States for $15 million. This territory includes present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

Reservations: As early as 1851, the federal government pursued a policy of restricting American Indians to established reservations—confined areas that were set aside by the government. A major goal of the reservation system was to keep American Indians off lands that white settlers wanted to settle. Often the lands set aside for reservations were incapable of sustaining crops, reducing the inhabitants to utter poverty. Many tribal groups resisted being put into reservations.

The Compromise of 1850

Wilmot Proviso: Northern politicians tried, unsuccessfully, to ban slavery in territories that might be gained in the war by putting forth the Wilmot Proviso (1846). These politicians were not, for the most part, abolitionists, but they believed in the “free labor” ideal. They wanted additional land for white settlers to set up homesteads without competition from the slave system. The proviso was passed by the House of Representatives, where politicians from the populous northern states dominated, but failed in the Senate.

Popular Sovereignty: Senator Lewis Cass, the Democratic candidate for president in 1848, proposed a compromise measure on the question of slavery in the newly acquired territories. He came up with the idea that the question of slavery should be left to the people of a particular territory. This idea became known as popular sovereignty.

California: By 1850, California had enough of an American population to form a state (a population threshold of 60,000 was established by the 1787 Northwest Ordinance). Californians wrote up a constitution to submit to Congress in which slavery would be illegal. Southern senators objected to the admission of an additional free state.

Compromise of 1850: The most important elements of the compromise were the admittance of California as a free state, which pleased northern politicians, and a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law, which pleased southern politicians. Other measures included allowing New Mexico and Utah to decide the question of slavery based on popular sovereignty, accepting a new boundary between Texas and Mexico, and banning the slave trade (but not slavery) in Washington, D.C.

Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences

Nativism: The first half of the nineteenth century witnessed a dramatic increase in immigration from Europe, as well as a strong xenophobic nativist movement. Nativism was both an emotional impulse as well as an organized movement. Many Americans thought that the new immigrants, who were mostly non-Protestant, lacked the self-control of “proper,” middle-class Protestant Americans.

Fugitive Slave Act: Many northerners grew alarmed at the enforcement of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act. The strict provisions of the 1850 act allowed slave catchers to bring the brutality of the slave system to the streets of northern cities. Many whites and free African Americans in northern cities even formed vigilance committees to prevent the slave catchers from carrying out their orders.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Sectional tensions were further inflamed by the publication in 1852 of the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The novel, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe of the antislavery Beecher family, depicted in graphic and emotional detail the brutality of slavery. For many northerners, slavery now had a human face. The novel outraged southern supporters of slavery, who attempted to ban it.

Failure to Compromise

Kansas-Nebraska Act: In 1854, Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act to the Senate. Douglas, who owned significant tracts of land in Chicago, hoped that the first transcontinental railroad would have a more northern route, using Chicago as a hub. Any railroad construction would have to be carried out in organized territory. The act called for dividing the northern section of the Louisiana Purchase territory into two organized territories, Kansas and Nebraska.

Dred Scott v. Sandford: The case involved the fate of a slave named Dred Scott, owned by a doctor serving in the U.S. Army. Scott and his wife, along with their owner, lived for a time in Illinois and in the Wisconsin Territory, areas where slavery had been banned by the Northwest Ordinance. Years after returning to Missouri, Scott sued for his and his wife’s freedom on the grounds that they had lived for a time in free areas and that made them free. The Supreme Court did not find Dred Scott’s arguments persuasive. First, the Court ruled that Scott was still a slave and did not even have the right to initiate a lawsuit. Next, the Court ruled that Congress had overstepped its bounds in declaring the northern portion of the Louisiana Purchase territory off-limits to slavery. The decision, therefore, invalidated the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Finally, the Court declared that no African Americans, not even free men and women, were entitled to citizenship in the United States because, according to the decision, they were “beings of an inferior order.”

“Free Labor” Ideology: Central to the Republican Party was the “free labor” ideology. This ideology upheld civic virtue and the dignity of labor and put a great deal of emphasis on economic growth and social mobility. It vigorously defended a free labor system that allowed hard-working individuals to achieve independence and property. The economic superiority of free labor to slave labor became a major part of the Republican argument against slavery.

Election of 1860 and Secession

Secession: Lincoln’s electoral victory in 1860 alarmed southern defenders of slavery to the point that leading political figures in the South were ready to secede. Even before Lincoln was inaugurated, seven southern states did secede (South Carolina in late 1860, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas in early 1861).

President Lincoln: Once inaugurated, President Lincoln made it clear that he would not permit southern secession, but he did not want to initiate a war with the breakaway states. The presence of U.S. troops at Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, proved to be the spark that ignited the war.

Confederate States of America: The leadership of the nearly formed Confederate States of America decided that it would not tolerate the presence of the U.S. flag over Fort Sumter. In April 1861 Confederate president Jefferson Davis ordered bombardment of the fort, which was forced to surrender. This encounter constituted the opening shots of the American Civil War.

Military Conflict in the Civil War

Industrialization: The Civil War spurred rapid industrialization of the North. During the Civil War, the Union government required an enormous amount of war materials, from guns and bullets to boots and uniforms. Manufacturers rose to the occasion by rapidly modernizing production. These changes in production sped up the process of industrialization that was in its beginning stages before the war. Industrialization stimulated a long period of economic growth, turning the United States into a world economic power.

“Greenbacks:” Congress issued three Legal Tender Acts in 1862 and 1863, allowing the government to issue paper currency, or “greenbacks.” Unlike currency backed by gold or silver, greenbacks were backed only by people’s faith in the government. The value of greenbacks fluctuated as the war progressed.

Enrollment Act: One of the most significant episodes of resistance to Union policies involved riots against the Enrollment Act (1863), establishing a military draft, in New York City in July 1863. Protests initially focused on government draft offices. Protesters were particularly angry about a stipulation of the draft law that allowed men to pay a $300 commutation fee which exempted them from serving as a soldier. This substantial sum was well beyond most working-class men.

Anaconda Plan: The Union had a three-part strategy. First, the navy would blockade southern ports. The intent of this strategy, labeled the Anaconda Plan, was to prevent supplies from reaching the South and southern products from being shipped abroad. The second part was to divide Confederate territory in half by taking control of the Mississippi River. Finally, a contingent of troops would march on the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia and achieve victory.

Government Policies During the Civil War

Emancipation Proclamation: The edict ordered the freeing of all slaves in rebel-held territory as of January 1, 1863. Significantly, the order did not free slaves in the loyal border states or in Union-held areas of Confederate states. Of course, orders from the United States government did not hold any weight for Confederate leaders, so the Emancipation Proclamation did not initially free any slaves. However, the order clearly changed the goals and tenor of the war, and made clear that this was as much a war for the liberation of the slaves as it was a war to preserve the Union.

“Juneteenth:” On June 19, 1865, in Galveston, Union General Gordon Granger and his troops announced that “in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free.” The anniversary of that announcement has long held significance in the African American community as “Juneteenth.”

The Battle of Gettysburg: The Battle of Gettysburg (1863) was a major turning point in the Civil War. Several months after the battle, President Abraham Lincoln went to Gettysburg to dedicate a military cemetery at the site. His address at the ceremony succinctly framed the Civil War in the larger context of fulfilling the democratic goals that were implicit in the founding documents of the United States.

Reconstruction

Thirteenth Amendment: Slavery had been virtually destroyed as Union troops defeated the Confederacy. Yet, by the end of the Civil War, some slaves were still not freed, especially in areas that had not been under Confederate control, such as Kentucky and Delaware. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) freed the remaining slaves but, more importantly, it enshrined in the United States Constitution that slavery was illegal in America.

“Ten Percent” Plan: President Lincoln was eager to quickly restore the Union. An initial goal of his was restoring southern representation in Congress. In 1863, he announced his “ten percent” plan. Under this plan, if ten percent of the 1860 vote count in a southern state took an oath of allegiance to the United States and promised to abide by emancipation, then that state could establish a new government and send representatives to Congress.

Black Codes: Immediately after the Civil War, in 1865 and 1866, Southern states passed Black Codes. These statutes regulated the activities of African Americans and in many ways recreated the conditions of slavery. Certain Black Codes forbade African Americans from owning land or owning a business. A central feature of these Black Codes was a broad and harsh set of vagrancy laws, which allowed for the arrest of freed people for minor infractions.

“Scalawags:” Southern whites who joined the Republicans were labeled “scalawags” by their Democratic opponents. Many southern white Republicans were former Whigs and sought to promote economic progress for the South.

“Carpetbaggers:” Many northerners came to the South to participate in Reconstruction. Some of these northern Republicans sought personal advancement in coming South; many were motivated by a desire to assist the former slaves in their adjustment to life as freed men and women. Southern Democrats labeled these northerners “carpetbaggers,” implying that they hurriedly threw some belongings in a carrying bag and traveled to the South to make a quick fortune.

Failure of Reconstruction

“Sharecropping” System: African Americans began to rent land. They would customarily pay “rent” with a portion of their yearly crop—usually half. This “sharecropping” system was somewhat of a compromise—African Americans did not have to work under the direct supervision of an overseer, and white plantation owners acquired cotton to be sold on the open market. After paying back loans for seed money and tools, sharecroppers were left with very little for basic necessities. The system created a cycle of debt, which prevented African Americans from acquiring wealth and owning land.

Jim Crow Laws: A series of segregation laws, known as “Jim Crow laws,” were passed in the southern states in the years following Reconstruction. These laws segregated public facilities, such as railroad cars, bathrooms, and schools. Furthermore, they relegated African Americans to second-class status in the South. These state and local laws first appeared in the South starting in 1881.

Fourteenth Amendment: The passage of Jim Crow laws in the South after Reconstruction was aided in part by a narrow interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment by the Supreme Court. Advocates of civil rights for African Africans hoped that the Fourteenth Amendment (ratified in 1868) would prevent the implementation of Jim Crow laws.

PERIOD 5 DATES TO KNOW

STUDY TIP: You will never be asked specifically to identify a date. However, knowing the order of events will help immensely with cause and effect. For this reason, we have identified the most important dates to know.

1845 - Annexation of Texas

1845-1848 - Mexican-American War

1848 - Seneca Falls Convention

1850 - Fugitive Slave Law

1852 - Uncle Tom’s Cabin

1854 - Bleeding Kansas

1857 - Dred Scott Case

1860 - Lincoln’s Election

1861-1865 - Civil War

1862 - Homestead Act

1863 - Gettysburg

1867 - Reconstruction Acts

1867 - Purchase of Alaska

1877 - Compromise of 1877

PERIOD 5 ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

STUDY TIP: Use the following essential questions to guide your review of this entire unit. Keep in mind, these are not meant to be practice essay questions. Each question was written to help you summarize the key concept.

1. What were the motives and consequences of westward expansion?

2. What were the causes and consequences of the Civil War?

3. How did the US government react to post-Civil War pressures from Northerners and Southerners?

Get Filled In: Period 5 Contextualization and Sectionalism Contextualization

Past Essay Questions from Period 5

STUDY TIP: Content from the Civil War era has appeared on the essays six times since 2000. Take a look at these questions before you review the key concepts & vocabulary below to get a sense of how you will be assessed. Then, come back to these later and practice writing as many as you can! 

The APUSH exam was significantly revised in 2015, so any questions from before then are not representative of the current exam format. You can still use prior questions to practice, however DBQs will have more than 7 documents, the LEQ prompts are worded differently, and the rubrics are completely different. Use questions from 2002-2014 with caution. Essays from 1973-1999 available here.*

2017 - SAQ 3: Reconstruction

2016 - LEQ 2: 14th and 15th amendments

2014 - LEQ 3: Achievements of Reconstruction

2010 - LEQ 3: Slavery in western territories

2009 - DBQ: Responses to slavery

2006 - LEQ 3: Political effects of Civil War

PERIOD 5 KEY CONCEPTS

*The following outline was adapted from the AP® United States History Course Description as published by College Board in 2019 found here. This outline reflects the most recent revisions to the course.

5.1. Westward Expansion

🎥Live Stream Replay - Manifest Destiny

🚂 Study Guide - Westward Expansion

1. New territories were acquired in the west and more people moved west.1. People moved west for opportunities, religious refuge, and access to resources.1. Many advocated that the US was destined to expand to the Pacific (Manifest Destiny).1. Through the Mexican-American War, the US added a lot of territory, which triggered debates over slavery, Native Americans, and Mexicans in the newly acquired lands.1. New legislation promoted westward migration.1. The US expanded its interests in Asia

2. The debates about rights and citizenship for some groups continued.1. Immigrants from western Europe created ethnic enclaves in the North.1. Anti-Catholic nativism spread and limited political power over immigrants.1. Mexican Americans and American Indians in the west faced continued oppression.

5.2. Causes of the Civil War

🎥Live Stream Replay - Road to the Civil War

🎥Live Stream Replay - The Civil War

1. Differences over slavery led to a range of opinions.1. The North relied on wage labor for manufacturing while the South depended on slave labor. Some Northerners were okay with the principle of slavery, but feared it would affect the wage-labor market. They created the Free-Soil movement.1. Abolition activists continued to campaign against slavery and helped free slaves.1. Many argued that slavery was a positive good and that states’ rights were protected.

2. The debate about slavery culminated in the secession of southern states in 1860 and the Civil War began.1. Debates in the 1850s centered on whether to allow slavery in new territories. - Study Guide: The Compromise of 18501. Attempts to solve the issue failed to reduce conflict (Kansas-Nebraska, Dred Scott).1. Sectional political parties emerged as issues of slavery and nativism grew stronger.1. Lincoln’s victory on the free-soil platform led to southern states seceding. - Study Guide:The Election of 1860####

5.3. Aftermath of the Civil War

🎥Live Stream Replay - Reconstruction

1. The North won because of strong leadership, manpower, & industrial resources.1. The economies and societies of the North and South were both mobilized.1. Lincoln began the war to preserve the union, but the Emancipation Proclamation made the war squarely about the institution of slavery.1. Through speeches, Lincoln framed the war as a battle to preserve democratic ideals.1. The Confederacy had a strong military push in the beginning, but the Union won because of stronger leadership, strategy, and greater wartime resources. - Learn about the military conflict of the civil war

Study Guide - Reconstruction

1. Slavery ended after the Civil War, which led to new debates about citizenship.1. The 13th amendment abolished slavery and the 14th & 15th amendments granted citizenship and protected equal rights.1. The 14th amendment divided the women’s movement because white women did not want black men to get the vote before them.1. Reconstruction initially created more opportunities for black Americans, but eventually failed because of Southern resistance.1. Life in the south was difficult for former slaves and many were forced into new exploitative systems of sharecropping because of limited opportunities.1. Rights for African Americans were stripped away bit by bit until the 20th century.

LIST OF CONCEPTS & VOCABULARY FROM PERIOD 5

STUDY TIP: These are the concepts and vocabulary from period 5 that most commonly appear on the exam. Create a quizlet deck to make sure you are familiar with these terms!

13th Amendment: Ratified in 1865, this amendment abolished slavery in the United States, marking a significant shift in American law and society. It provided the legal foundation for the civil rights movement that followed and aimed to secure freedom for enslaved people.

14th Amendment: Ratified in 1868, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves. It also sought to protect the rights of all citizens by prohibiting states from denying any person "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law" and ensuring equal protection under the law.

15th Amendment: Ratified in 1870, this amendment prohibited the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude," aiming to enfranchise African American men after the Civil War.

Abraham Lincoln: The 16th president of the United States, who served from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the Civil War, preserved the Union, and was instrumental in the passage of the 13th Amendment. His leadership style involved navigating political tensions and the complexities of a nation divided by slavery.

Anaconda Plan: A strategic plan devised by Union General Winfield Scott in 1861 to defeat the Confederacy during the Civil War. The plan called for a naval blockade of the Southern ports and the strangulation of the South's economy, combined with the capture of strategic points along the Mississippi River to cut the Confederacy in half.

Antietam: The Battle of Antietam, fought on September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with around 22,000 casualties. The battle ended in a tactical stalemate but provided President Lincoln the confidence to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, shifting the war's focus to the abolition of slavery.

Appomattox Court House: The site of General Robert E. Lee's surrender to Union General Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War. The terms of surrender were generous, allowing Confederate soldiers to return home without prosecution.

Black Codes: Laws enacted in the Southern states after the Civil War to restrict African Americans' freedom and compel them to work in a labor economy based on low wages or debt. These laws undermined the advances made during Reconstruction and contributed to the systemic racism that persisted for decades.

Bleeding Kansas: A series of violent confrontations in 1854 and 1855 between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the Kansas Territory. The conflict arose after the Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed residents to determine if they would allow slavery, leading to bloody clashes that foreshadowed the Civil War.

Border States: These were slave states that did not secede from the Union during the Civil War: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri. Their strategic importance lay in their geographic location and resources, and their status posed significant challenges for Lincoln's administration.

Bull Run: The First Battle of Bull Run, or the First Manassas, fought on July 21, 1861, was the first major battle of the Civil War. The Confederate victory surprised the Union and dispelled any notions that the war would be short or easily won by either side.

Carpetbagger: A derogatory term used to describe Northerners who moved to the South after the Civil War to exploit the region's post-war turmoil for economic or political gain. Many carpetbaggers were involved in the Reconstruction government but faced hostility from Southern whites.

Civil Rights Act of 1866: Landmark legislation that aimed to protect the civil rights of African Americans. It granted citizenship to all persons born in the United States and sought to provide equal protection under the law, though it faced pushback and was not fully enforced in the South.

Compromise of 1850: A series of laws aimed at resolving disputes over slavery in newly acquired territories. It admitted California as a free state, enacted a stricter Fugitive Slave Law, and allowed territories to decide the issue of slavery through popular sovereignty.

Compromise of 1877: An unwritten deal that settled the 1876 presidential election. It resulted in Republican Rutherford B. Hayes becoming president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and allowing Southern Democrats to regain power.

Confederacy: The Confederate States of America, formed in 1861 by seven Southern states that seceded from the Union. It aimed to preserve slavery and states' rights and was eventually defeated in the Civil War.

Crittenden Compromise: A proposal by Senator John J. Crittenden in late 1860 to prevent the Civil War by re-establishing the Missouri Compromise line and extending it westward. The plan sought to protect slavery in the Southern regions but ultimately failed to gain significant support.

Dred Scott v. Sandford: An 1857 Supreme Court case where the Court ruled that African Americans could not be citizens and thus had no right to sue in federal court. The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, escalating tensions over slavery.

Emancipation Proclamation: Issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863, it declared the freedom of all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory. While it did not immediately free all slaves, it marked a turning point in the Civil War, making the abolition of slavery a war aim.

Freedmen's Bureau: Established in 1865, this federal agency helped newly freed African Americans transition from slavery to freedom. It provided food, housing, education, and legal assistance and played a crucial role in the early efforts of Reconstruction.

Free Soil Party: A short-lived political party in the United States that emerged in the 1840s, primarily focused on opposing the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Its slogan was "Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men."

Fugitive Slave Law: Part of the Compromise of 1850, this law mandated that escaped slaves be returned to their enslavers and imposed penalties on anyone aiding their escape. Its harsh provisions intensified Northern abolitionist sentiment and opposition to slavery.

Gadsden Purchase: An 1854 agreement in which the United States bought land from Mexico (present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico) for $10 million, aimed to facilitate a southern transcontinental railroad route.

Gettysburg Address: A speech delivered by Lincoln on November 19, 1863, during the dedication of a cemetery for Union soldiers at Gettysburg. The address emphasized the principles of human equality and the purpose of the war, reinforcing the nation's commitment to a new birth of freedom.

Gold Rush: Triggered by the discovery of gold in California in 1848, this massive influx of prospectors and settlers transformed California's economy and demographics, prompting debates over slavery as new territories were organized.

Greenback: A term for paper currency issued by the U.S. government during the Civil War, which was not backed by gold. The fluctuating value of greenbacks reflected the economic uncertainties of wartime finance.

Habeas Corpus: A legal principle that protects individuals from unlawful detention. During the Civil War, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus in some cases to maintain order and suppress dissent, raising concerns about civil liberties.

Harpers Ferry Raid: An 1859 armed raid led by abolitionist John Brown at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, aimed at initiating a slave uprising. The raid failed, but it heightened sectional tensions and made Brown a martyr for the abolitionist cause.

Harriet Beecher Stowe: An influential author and abolitionist, Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, published in 1852. The novel depicted the harsh realities of slavery and helped galvanize anti-slavery sentiments in the North.

Homestead Act: Enacted in 1862, this law granted 160 acres of public land to settlers willing to farm it for five years. It aimed to encourage westward expansion and promote agricultural development.

Jefferson Davis: The President of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Davis struggled to unify the Confederacy and faced substantial challenges in governance and military strategy.

Kansas-Nebraska Act: Passed in 1854, this act allowed territories to decide on the legality of slavery through popular sovereignty. It led to violent conflicts known as Bleeding Kansas and undermined previous compromises.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK): Founded in the post-Civil War South, this white supremacist group aimed to control African Americans through intimidation and violence. It opposed Reconstruction efforts and sought to maintain white supremacy and segregation.

Know Nothing Party: An American nativist political party active in the 1850s that opposed immigration, particularly by Catholics and Irish immigrants. The party's members were known for their secrecy and often held anti-immigrant sentiments.

Little Big Horn: A significant battle in 1876 where the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated U.S. Army troops commanded by General Custer, marking a major victory for Native Americans in the Great Plains Wars.

MA 54th Regiment: The first African American regiment organized in the North during the Civil War, known for its bravery in the assault on Fort Wagner in 1863. Their service helped challenge racial stereotypes and the role of African Americans in the military.

Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States was justified and inevitable. It fueled westward expansion and was used to rationalize the displacement of Native Americans and conflicts with Mexico.

Matthew Perry: A Commodore in the U.S. Navy who played a key role in opening Japan to the United States through the Perry Expedition in 1853-1854, marking a significant moment in U.S.-Japan relations.

Minstrel Shows: A form of entertainment that emerged in the early 19th century featuring white performers in blackface, portraying racial stereotypes. These shows reflected and perpetuated racial prejudices and had a significant cultural impact on America.

Missionary: Individuals who traveled to promote Christianity, notably in the 19th century, often involved in civilizing missions in the West and abroad. Their work included education and social reform but also contributed to the critique of indigenous cultures.

Morrill Land Grant: Established in 1862, this act provided land grants to states to fund the establishment of colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts, promoting higher education and research in the U.S.

Morrill Tariff: A protective tariff passed in 1861 that raised tariff rates to protect Northern industry. The tariff was a contentious issue, exacerbating sectional tensions between the North and South.

Popular Sovereignty: A political doctrine introduced in the 1850s allowing residents of federal territories to decide the legality of slavery themselves. This approach aimed to address the contentious issue of slavery in new territories.

Radical Republicans: A faction within the Republican Party that emerged during the Civil War and Reconstruction, advocating for the abolition of slavery and equal civil rights for African Americans. They pushed for stringent Reconstruction policies and opposed leniency towards the South.

Reconstruction: The era following the Civil War (1865-1877) focused on rebuilding the South and integrating formerly enslaved individuals into society. It involved significant legislative changes but was ultimately marred by resistance from Southern whites and the emergence of Jim Crow laws.

Robert E. Lee: The commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia during the Civil War. Lee was a skilled tactician and a key figure in major battles, though he ultimately faced defeat at Appomattox.

Sand Creek Massacre: A tragic event in 1864 where Colorado U.S. troops attacked a peaceful village of Cheyenne and Arapaho, leading to the deaths of many Native Americans. This incident highlighted the brutal realities of U.S. expansion and Native American displacement.

Scalawag: A derogatory term used during Reconstruction to describe Southern whites who supported the Republican Party and Reconstruction efforts. Scalawags often faced hostility from other Southerners for their political beliefs.

Secession: The process by which eleven Southern states withdrew from the Union after the election of Lincoln in 1860, leading to the formation of the Confederacy and the onset of the Civil War.

Sharecropper: A labor system commonly used in the South post-Civil War where landowners provided land, seed, and tools to farmers in exchange for a share of the crops produced. This system often led to economic dependency for African Americans and poor whites, trapping them in cycles of poverty.

Sherman's March: A military campaign led by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman from 1864 to 1865, which involved marching through Georgia and the Carolinas. The campaign aimed to destroy Confederate infrastructure and morale, utilizing tactics of total war.

Stonewall Jackson: A talented Confederate general known for his military skill. He earned his nickname at the First Battle of Bull Run for standing firm against Union forces. Jackson's strategies and tactics significantly impacted Confederate success early in the war.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Signed in 1848, this treaty ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in the U.S. acquisition of present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico for $15 million, reshaping the borders of the U.S.

Underground Railroad: A network of secret routes and safe houses that helped enslaved African Americans escape to free states and Canada. It was operated by abolitionists and sympathizers who risked their lives to assist escaping slaves.

Wilmot Proviso: Proposed legislation in 1846 aimed at banning slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Although it failed in Congress, it intensified the national debate over slavery and foreshadowed future conflicts.