CHIN 50 Final Exam - David Schaberg

Chapter 5: Tang Dynasty

Tang Taizong 

• Son of li yuan, regarded as a co-founder of the Tang Dynasty

• Second emperor of the Tang Dynasty 

• Just as brutal as Wendi, killed 2 brothers and murdered all nephews

• Forced his dad to abdicate

• Wise and conscientious ruler, selected good advisors, and listened to them even about his behavior

Empress Wu/Wu Zetian 

• Ruthless and politically sharp as Taizong and Wendi

• Initially a concubine of Taizong, but became one of his sons Gaozong

• Was able to manipulate Gaozong into ousting the Empress and other consorts

• Ruled behind the scenes of Gaozong until his death

• She reigned through her sons and eventually dispose of both

• Then declared herself emperor of the Zhou dynasty

• Promoted Buddhism as a way to legitimize her reign

• Historical accounts of her brutal, maybe

• Very strong hold on the government 

Tang Xuanzong 

• Grandson of Empress Wu ended the dominance of his fathers' wife and sister in court

• His court became high point of focal culture

• Up regulation of state rituals

• Welcomed religions into his court

• New academy for poets

• Troupe of dancing horses

• Curbed power of imperial relatives and buddhist monasteries (Wu helped them)

• Ordered new census and reformed equal fields system to be more equitable

• Established military provinces for defence

• Many consorts and kids, fell in love with Yang Guifei

• Killed Yang Guifei and then abdicated to his son

Yang Guifei 

• Consort of Tang Xuanzong

• Not politically smart

• “Amused” by the company of An Lushan and so Xuangzong showered him with favors

  • Allowed him to amass 160k troops along the northern borders and then he rebelled in 755 and marched on Louynad and Changan

  • Xuanzong fled and his soldiers made him kill Yang       

Xuanzang 

• A Buddhist monk who passed through Turfan on his trip to India

• 15 year long journey

• Emperor Taizong was very interested in his travels across Central asia + India (inspired later stories of the journey to the west) 

Tang and Turks

• Turks became a major power in the inner asian frontier

• Developed own writing system 

• Had history of getting drawn into chinese conflicts

• THeir succession didn't follow fixed rules so dynasties were short

• Tang pursued weddings and military and trade alliances with the Turks

  • Had some of them fight other turks

• Tang and Turks fought the Kitan

• Tang and turks also fought each

• Both explored the Silk Road

Tang and Uyghurs 

• After the Tang pulled back from Inner East Asia and Tibet during An Lushan Rebellion

  • Uyghurs temporarily held onto this region

• Helped Tang with the An Lushan rebellion but were given very good trade offers and money

  • Horses for silk

Tang and Tibetans 

• Growing state during the Tang Dynasty

• Tibet over took Turfan from the Tang and held onto it due to An Lushan Rebellion

• 1 of many secondary states that have adopted some Chinese techniques of Rule

Tang and Korean states Goguryeo and Silla 

• Tang attacked the state of Goguryeo with the help of the Korean state of Silla

• Goguryeo was defeated but Silla go the territory 

• Silla would become a strong Tang Ally

Arab Merchants 

• Dominated much of the Indian Ocean and Southern Asian maritime trade

• Traded between China and the rest of Asia

• Helped in growing southern port cities like Fuzhou, Quanzou, and Guangzhou

Chang’an as a City 

• Capital of Tang dynasty

• Major trade hub and terminus of the Silk Roads

• Religious center

• Continued to thrive as an urban centre in the post rebellion era

• Cultural exchange center, cosmopolitan

• Planned city laid out in a grid

• Palace in north so he could face out to his subjects who resided in 108 wards

An Lushan Rebellion 

• Military commander

• Half turk

• Amassed 160k rebellion in the northern frontier provinces with the blessing of emperor Xuanzong

• Marched on Changan

• Last 8 years and killed over 13 million people

• Wanted to overthrow the dynasty and seize control

Tang short stories 

• Influenced by Empress Wu and Yang Guifei

• Fictional women played a massive role in shaping understanding of male-female relationships

• Writeen in classical language 

  • What makes men and women attractive to each other

  • Differing ways they expressed their love

  • Proclivities for devotion or callousness

Civil service examination system in Tang 

• Empress wu was given credit for elevating Civil Service examination system 

• 2 Tests

  • Mingjing (illuminated the classics) exam required extensive memorization

  • Jinshi (presented scholar) exam required the ability to compose formal styles of poetry and write essays on political issues, and in time it became most prestigious

  • New system expensed opportunities for highly talented men from unconnected families

  • System still allowed for the prestige of aristocratic family lineages.

    • New reforms did not put an end to all prominence of men from elite families 

Salt Commission 

• Government raised lots of revenue through its control of production and distribution of salt 

  • Salt monopoly accounted for more than half of the government revenue

• Salt commission was by finance officials and over looked the tax

Silk road 

• Tang had military might to garrison silk road and keep it open for trade

• Ended at the capital of the Tang dynasty, Chang an

• Created more cultural exchange

Mulian 

• Buddhist tale of a Mulian who journeys to netherworld to save his mom from being tortured

• Became so popular that a ghost festival was helped on the 15th day of 7th month for buddhist and non alike

• Put food out to feed hungry ghosts, give adoration

• Monasteries create unusual candles, cakes, and fake flowers 

Chan Buddhism 

• Known as Zen Buddhism in Japan

  • Started gaining popularity

• Rejected authority of Sutras and claimed superiority of mind to mind transmission of buddhist truth through series of patriarchs

  • First patriarch Bodhidharma, indian monk who came to china

  • 6th patriarch was Huineng, the illiterate chinese monk

• Mediation and discipline

Tarim Basin 

• Inner Asian Region north of mongolia that had the Silk Road trading routes go through it

• Tang dynasty and several other inner asian states vied for control over this region to gain wealth from trade

• Home to several cities that the Tang would station troops at

Dunhuang 

• Near the end of the Silk Road

• Region that housed the Mogao Caves

  • Massive cache of documents found sealed in a cave temple gave insight to what life was like for Tang citizens far from capital

    • Contracts, registration records, primers, and letters, etc (books

• These people were still profoundly affected by capital policies

  • State dictating market prices

  • Public works repair

Woodblock Printing 

• This is talked about in Chapter 6 not 5?

Du You 

• Severed in several governmental post

• Submitted an enormous history of chinese institutions (his Tongdian) to the throne

  • Can be read as a plea for an activist approach for his modern day problems

    • Governmental reform

• Believed that the basis for organization of the government depended on food and money, basis of people livelihood and gov revenue not rituals

  • Taxation 

• Belived in well designed governmental control

• Said the prefecture and county system of Tang and Han was better than feudal system of the Zhou

Han Yu 

• Younger contemporary of Du You

• Saw the issues with china in more cultural and moral terms

• Reaffirmed confucian classics as a basis for education and good writing

  • Wanted it promoted in simpler styles based on the ideas of clarity, consciseness, and utility

• Also saw weakness in the central gov but believed than revitalization of confucianism would fix

• Really didnt like buddhism and daoism, blamed them, wanted books burned

• Way of the sages

  • Go back to the basics of confucian before other religions messed up tuff

Huang Chao

• A salt merchant who went on to lead the most successful bandit gang

  • His army eventually took Guangzhou and Chang’an

  • Set up a new government

  • Sacked Luoyang

• economic suffering, local corruption, and discontent with the government’s inability to protect citizens

• Basically helped start off the beginning the 5 dynasties and ten kingdoms period that happened 20 years after this

• Tang fell apart during his rebellion

Chapter 6: Five Dynasties and Song

Zhao Kuangyin/Song Taizu

• General during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (Northeen Zhou)

• Defeated most rivals

• First emperor of the Song

  • Elevated to position by troops bc they didnt wanna follow kid emperor

• Ended military rule

  • Had his commanders retire - wanted to prevent the rise of strongmen

  • Replaced military gov with civilian ones

  • Kept best soldiers at his side

  • Put army under civilian control

• Created prefectures - appointed intendants to supervise

Song Taizong 

• Younger bro of Song Taizu who succeeded to the throne after Taizu died 

• Completed the reorganization of military forces

  • Dismantled military provinces

Wang Anshi 

• Had the support of emperor Shenzong and was a reformer of the government

• Many new policies he thought would enrich the country and bring more money to state

  • Restructure fiscal administration

  • Local militia to aid in national defence

  • New schemes for collecting and moving special tribute taxes

  • Interests bearing loans to prevent peasants from becoming indentured

  • Etc

• Tried to do too much, too fast and upset most of the government

  • Was denounced as for his policies being unconfucian

• Ousted many rivals - people who opposed him

• Revised the examinations for entry into office

• Eventually ousted after emperor died

  • Disliked by sima guang and su shi - unconfucian

• Start of factional hostility

Sima Guang 

• Historian who denounced Wang Anshi

• Served as a prime minister

• Wrote a narrative history of china covering more than 1300 years from late Zhou to Song in 960

• Social harmony depended on individual moral action

  • Men and women needed to identify with interests of the family

    • Women should have no desire for property, jealousy, like anything fun or being happy serve the dudes

Su Shi/Su Dongpo 

• Poet and painter

  • Incredibly famous

• Outspoken policy critic who also opposed Wang

• Exiled twice 

  • Wrote really good poems of places he were

• Upheld confucian ideals of public service

Gunpowder

• Military engineers discovered that gunpowder could be used as a propellent

  • Allowing it to be used in guns and cannons, not just grenades

• Pressures form northern neighbors spurred technological advancement

• End of the song, they developed true guns

Paper Money 

• Demand for money increased as trade did

  • Expansion of rice cultivation in south and central china lead to a population boon

• Tons of coins were being minted in response

  • Some of these coins were made of iron which made them way too heavy

• Wanting to avoid carrying massive amounts of coins, merchants began trading receipts at deposit stores

  • Song took this over, creating 1st government issues paper money

    • Could be traded for silver

• Allowed for better organization of trade

Su Song 

• Successful official, served in several high position

• Published 5 maps of stars

• Lead a team compiled Material medica

• Created a massive astronomical clock when he saw that Liao and Song calendars different - hydro-mechanical clock tower

  • Told the time with signs

Shen Gua 

• Discussed about paintings, poetry, music, history, divination, Buddhism

• Traveled across china

• Technologically savvy

  • Designing drainage and enablement systems that reclaimed land for farming

  • Served as a financial expert

  • Headed bureau of Astronomy

  • Supervised military defense

• Contemporary of Su Song

• Sun and moon not flat

• Thought about magnetic compass

• Moon doesn't glow

• Solar calendar

Song Huizong 

• Son of emperor Shenzong

• Most cultivated Song emperor

  • Talented painter and calligrapher

  • Used court budget to build up imerial art collections

• Passionate about Daoism

  • Used resources to promote 

• Abdicated when Jurchens marched on Kaifeng

• Eventually taken captive with his son by Jurchens

Yue Fei 

• One guy who didnt want to appease the Jin (The jurchen dynasty)

• Looked at as a hero - retook jurchen land

• General who tried to retake the north

  • Made it to Luoyang area but was called back and killed

Siege of Xiangyang 

• Gunpowder was used to defend against Mongols

• The city was under siege by the Mongols

  • Built a river fleet

  • Lasted 5 years

• Mongols used all races of people they had conquered as experts in naval and siege warfare

  • Muslim artery barrages 

• Diverse army that included engineers, siege specialists, and troops

• Mongols won

Wen Tianxiang 

• Continued fighting the mongols even after Empress dowager Xie surrender (she surrendered to spare the people of the capital)

• Literati-turned general, gave everything to the cause

  • Fought even after there was no chance of winning him

• Was captured and refused to serve Yuan government, executed

Civil Service Examination System in Song 

• Dominated the lives of the elite and confucianism was reinvigorated

• Promoted test in confucian classics, history, poetry, and books

• Scholar official class that was certified through competitive literary exams

  • Called themselves shi or shidafu

    • Scholar official name

• New elite social class

• Played central role in fashioning of new elite in song

  • Occurred because the song didn't want government dominated by military 

• Efforts made to make sure it was unbiased 

• Massive increase in number of exam takers

  • Very competitive for little post/jobs

• Offered better chance to rise to high level positions

Li Qingzhao 

• Famous female poet

  • “China's greatest female poet”

• More women were taught to read and write due to the expansion of the educated class and printing\

• Legal claims to property were strengthened for women at this time

Foot Binding 

• Tradition that appeared around Song dynasty

• One of several traditions that were detrimental to women

  • Female modesty became more strict

    • Women vieling faces and riding in curtained transport

• Originally practice began with dancer but then spread to upper class homes

  • Moms started doing it to their daughters at like ⅚

    • Tiny feet were considered to enhance a woman's beauty and make her more desirable

“Han” as term for Chinese people 

• Originally used for Northern dynasties to describe Chinese subjects

• Chinese literati started using this term more frequently

• Regardless of what dynasty is controlling where, still settled by Han people so its still part of “China”

  • Ethnic and national consciousness

    • Ideas were in contention with Confusian universal claims

      • Son of heaven having power to attract barbarians and reform them

        • Lots of xenophobia around now

          • Jurchens and Mongols

Cheng Yi 

• Social harmony depended on individual moral actions

  • It was super bad for a woman to remarry, she should starve instead 

Cheng Hao + Cheng Yi

• Two brothers

• Developed metaphysical theories about working of cosmos

  • Li: principle, pattern, coherence

    • Could be moral or physical in nature

    • Everyone has good Li

  • Qi: Vital energies, material force, psychophysical stuff

    • The energy and substance that makes up things

    • People could have less impure Qi accounting for bad behavior

    • Sages had perfect Qi

  • These theories allowed song philosophers to accept Menicus theory of innate good ness and still explain bad behavior

Neo-Confucianism 

• Revival of confucian philosophy that emerged during song

  • Incorporated elements of buddhism (meditation) and daoism 

  • More comprehensive ethical and social system

  • Self cultivation and achieving harmony via proper social roles and moral conduct

Zhu Xi 

• Greatest Southern Song Confucian scholars

  • Very learned in classics and teachings of his predecessors

  • Served several terms in office

  • Instilled Neo-Confucianism

• Follower of Cheng brothers

• Played a role in developing institutional basis of a revived confucianism

  • Establishing academies 

• Instructed common people through his writings and posting notices

• His teachings were criticized saying they were “spurious learning”

  • Outspoken nature and his rigid stance against corruption which upset some inthe government and elites

• People did not support his ways and barred from exam unless they denied his faith

• Lots of support for them after his death

Four Books 

• The analects, Mencius, Doctrine of the mean, and Great learning

Hong Mai 

• Wrote Record of the Listener (documentation of local religion)

  • Heard from locals and those around him

  • Good and bad things can come from gods and spirits not only including buddhism and daoism

    • Gods and and demons 

  • Th book showed women in independent light

    • Running inns

    • Being part of commerce, trade, and outside society

    • Workers

    • Not confined to the home

    • Central figure in the home, child rearing

Landscape painting

• Painting on walls and on portable paper/silk

• Renowned as the greatest glory of chinese art

  • Mountains: Sacred, homes of immortals, close to heaven

• Style grew due with philosophical interest in nature

  • Daoism

    • Humans are small in the great cosmos 

Advancement in Knowledge (Song)

• Math to navigate, weapons, medicine, archaeology, astronomy

• Medicine

• Hydraulic clock

Chapter 7: Inner Asian Rule: Liao, Xi Xia, Jin, Yuan

Khitans (Liao)

• Established Khitan Liao Dynasty (existed at the same time as Xi Xia Dynasty)

• Mongolic people from the steppes

• Traded with Tang Dynasty

• Adopted Buddhism

Abaoji

• United ten tribes Khitan tribes into federation, and proclaimed the Liao Dynasty

• Built a walled capital in Inner Mongolia

• Established the Dual Governance system

Tanguts (Xi Xia)

• Tibetan-related ethnic group from Northwest China

• Established Xi Xia Dynasty (existed at the same time as Liao Dynasty)

• Developed their own writing system

• Chieftain was given title of “Duke of Xia”

Kaifeng

• City occupied by Khitan armies in 947

• Was the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty

• Became the capital of the Jin Dynasty 

Jurchens (Jin)

• Manchurian tribal people

• Established Jin Dynasty after the Liao Dynasty was beat

• Used Dual Governance

• Captured Kaifeng, leading to fall of Northern Song

Mongols (Yuan)

• Nomadic people from now Mongolia

• United under Genghis Khan in early 13th Century

• Built Mongol Empire, largest empire ever

• Promoted trade on the Silk Road

Dual Governance

• Khitan and Chinese governing system

• North was ruled in traditional steppe governance

• South was ruled in Chinese-style governance

Chinggis/Genghis Khan

• Founder of Mongol Empire/Yuan Dynasty, the largest empire to ever exist

• Promoted Silk Road trade and religious tolerance

Mongol empire

• The largest empire to ever exist

• Promoted Silk Road trade and religious tolerance

• Split into four khanates (regions) after Genghis Khan’s Death

• Declined from fragmentation and overexpansion

Ogödei Khan

• Third son of Genghis Khan

• Secured the victory over the Jurchens’ Jin Dynasty, securing North China

• Expanded the empire even further, like into Europe

• Built Karakorum, the Mongol Capital

Yelü Chucai

• Khitan statesman and Confucian scholar and principal adviser to Genghis Khan and Ogödei Khan

• Bridged cultural gaps between Mongols and Chinese

• Helped preserve conquered populations by taxing them and not killing them

Khublai

• Grandson of Genghis Khan

• He took over the Southern Song and established the Yuan Dynasty

• Established a capital at Dadu (modern Beijing) 

Zhong Kui

• Mythological figure in Chinese folklore who protected against evil

• A scholar who passed the civil service exam, but was rejected by the emperor and killed himself, which is where the myth began.

Zhao Mengfu

• Scholar, painter, and poet during Yuan Dynasty

• He helped the Mongol rulers conserve and integrate Chinese culture

• Revived classical styles of painting and calligraphy from Song and Tang Dynasties

William of Rubruck

• Franciscan monk and European missionary who went to the Mongol Empire

• Sent by King Louis IX of France to spread Christianity via the Silk Road

Marco Polo

• Venetian merchant and writer who traveled to Yuan Dynasty China and documented his experiences

• Served Kublai Khan as an envoy

• Recorded his experiences in China, and shared them in Europe

• Brought Chinese technology to Europe, like gunpowder, the compass, and printing

Yuan dynasty drama

• Drama became a powerful medium for expressing cultural identity and social criticism for the Chinese

• Famous Playwright: Guan Hanqing - “The Injustice of Dou E”

Chapter 8: Ming Dynasty (1370-1640)

Zhu Yuanzhang/Ming Taizu/Hongwu

• Founded Ming Dynasty by leading the Red Turban Army

• Strong centralized government-

• Made Nanjing the capital, and put massive walls around it

• Restored Civil Service Exam and Confucian education

• Gave land to peasants

Yongle Emperor/Chengzu

• Third emperor of the Ming Dynasty

• Moved capital to Beijing from Nanjing

• Strengthened Civil Service Exam

• Sponsored Zheng He’s voyages

• Secured northern borders

Eunuchs in Ming

• Men with no balls who served in the imperial court

• Had a lot of power in the imperial court, often competing with scholar-officals of the outer court

• Helped Emperor centralize power

Hideyoshi

• Japanese daimyo/samurai who unified Japan during Sengoku Period

• Launched invasions at Joseon Korea while passing by to attack the Ming

• Ming China and Korea teamed up to beat Hideyoshi and his army

Great Wall (Ming)

• To keep the Mongols away, the Ming reconstructed and expanded the Great Wall

Wang Yangming

• Confucian scholar and philosopher who developed the School of Mind within Neo Confucianism

• His philosophy:

  • Everyone has an innate moral compass

  • Moral insight must lead to moral behaviour

  • Introspection and self awareness

Silver in Ming

• Paper money was abandoned in the Ming dynasty due to inflation.

• Single whip reform - taxes musch be paid in only silver

• China didn’t produce enough silver, so it was imported

• Led to market growth, and linked China to global economy

Civil service examinations in Ming

• Restored after Yuan Dynasty

• Focused on the Confucian Classics (Four Books and Five Classics)

• Had to master the Eight-Legged Essay

Eight-Legged Essay

• Formal essay with eight components that was required on the Civil Service Exam

Chaste Widows

• Widows in Ming Dynasty that stuck to Confucian ideals

• Remarriage was shamed

• Reinforced gender inequality

Li Zhi

• Ming scholar who challenged Confucian orthodoxy

• His philosophy:

  • Childlike mind - state of pure thought and emotion, free from social influence

  • Criticized female inferiority

  • Sincere, humble life is better

Tang Xianzu

• Ming playwright and dramatist who made:

  • The Peony Pavilion

  • Four Dreams of Linchuan

• He also reformed Kunqu Opera

Feng Menglong

• Ming writer and scholar who contributed to vernacular Chinese literature. 

• Made entertainment and literature in vernacular Chinese due to growing middle class

Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Zhi)

• Historical novel by Luo Guanzhong about the Three Kingdoms Period during the Ming Dynasty

• One of China’s Four Great Classical Novels

Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji)

• Ming Dynasty novel by We Cheng’en

• One of China’s Four Great Classical Novels

• Inspired by Tang Xuansang’s pilgrimage to India

Plum in the Golden Vase (Jinpingmei)

• Late Ming Novel

Water Margin (Bandits of the Marsh/Shuihu Zhuan)

• Ming Dynasty Novel by Shi Nai’an about 108 outlaws becoming heroes

• One of China’s Four Great Classical Novels

“community compacts”

• Local self-governance agreements introduced during the Ming

• Confucian values were upheld and neighbors looked after each other

  • Filial piety, loyalty, and neighborly respect

Zheng He

• Ming Chinese admiral, explorer, and diplomat who led seven major maritime expeditions sponsored by Yongle Emperor

• Strengthened diplomatic ties and expanded Chinese influence, spreading China’s prestiege across Asia and Africa

Matteo Ricci

• Italian Jesuit missionary who helped introduce Christianity and Western Science to Ming China

• Presented Christianity in a way that aligned with Confucianism and the Chinese values

• Learned Chinese

Jingdezhen

• Became China’s Porcelain Capital and made really good porcelain

  • The “fine china” you think about comes from here, the blue and white ones

• Became major in global luxury market

Chapter 9: Qing Dynasty (Part 1 1644-1800)

Manchu

• Nomadic people from Manchuria (NE China) who founded Qing Dynasty

• Descendants of the Jurchens

• United under Nurhaci and took advantage of Ming decline to establish the Qing

Kangxi

• Fourth emperor of Qing Dynasty who brought stabilized the empire

• Brought Taiwan to Qing rule

• Promoted Confucianism and supported Jesuit missionaries and trade

• Said christian converts were cool as long as they could continue ancestral rites

  • Later revoked when the Vactican sent Maillard wo said it was religious so they couldnt workship ancestors

Yongzheng

• Fifth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, son of Kangxi Emperor

• Reformed the tax system and introduced the Silver Meltage Fee to standardize taxes

Qianlong

• Sixth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, fourth son of Yongzheng Emperor

• Benefitted from father’s fiscal reform, gov’t ran surplus throughout reign

• Familiarize himself with languages of those he ruled over, fluent in Mongolian

• Lamaist Buddhist, tried to be a sage emperor, concerned with conserving Manchu culture

• Called entire domain ‘China’ in contrast with previous usage referring to only Han Chinese

• Quick and forceful put-downs of anti-Manchu activity

Nurhaci

• Founder of the Manchu state (achieved over 30 year period)

• Created new phonetic Manchu script based on Mongolian

• Inventor of the banner system

• Established the Later Jin dynasty

• Attacked Ming territory in Liaodong area

Wu Sangui

• Ming general who defected to Qing in 1644

• Worked with Qing to cross the Great Wall, defeat Chinese rebels, rid north China of bandits

• Hunted down last Ming pretender in Burma, 1662, he and 2 other generals awarded large nearly autonomous domains in South China

• Kangxi emperor provoked them into the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories (1673-81), suppressed so Qing can take control of all of China proper

Massacre at Yangzhou

• Part of Manchu takeover of south China, thousands slaughtered

Queue (the hairstyle)

• Manchu hairstyle that all men were forced to wear after 1645, punishment otherwise was execution

• Clapped Ass Hairstyle

Ming loyalists

• Huang Zongxi studied flaws in imperial institution after 1649

• Gu Yanwu helped defend his city, then travelled across north China analyzing economic issues often overlooked by Confucian scholars

• Wang Fuzhi: Confucian scholar, argued distinction between Chinese and barbarians was as strong as that between superior and petty men

Banner system

• Military unit that included soldiers, their families, and supporting members (artisans, farmers)

• Military foundation for the Qing conquest

• Like belonging to a hereditary occupational caste, with distinct privileges and a hereditary occupation

• Lived off stipends, many lived in poverty

Zheng Chenggong/Koxinga

• Pirate/trader, took up Ming cause, attacked and took over Taiwan 1662 driving out Dutch

• Family controlled Taiwan for 20 years

“Evidential” research

• Close textual analysis of early Confucian texts, trying to separate genuine ancient text from later accretions

• Specialty of wealthy lower Yangzi region who had easy access to academies, private libraries

A Dream of Red Mansions/Story of the Stone (Hongloumeng/Shitouji):

• 120-chapter novel by Cao Xueqin (Chinese author) 

• can be read as a mythic story on Buddhist themes of attachment and enlightenment, a psychologically realistic autobiographical novel, or a novel of manners chronicling the upper reaches of Chinese and Manchu society in the 18th century.

• portrays the affairs of the wealthy, imperially favored Jia family.

• central characters are three adolescent relatives: Jia Baoyu, his two female cousins, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai.

• ends with Baoyu passing the civil service exams and leaving his family to pursue religious goals

• celebrated for sensitive depictions of female characters, including Baoyu’s grandmother, mother, sister, sisters-in-law, and the dozens of maids which shaped notions of the ideal young woman as elegant, sensitive, and delicate

Zhu Da/Bada Shanren: 

• a Ming imperial clansman (took on persona as Buddhist monk) who refused to co-operate with the Qing

• He was a painter who developed a highly expressionistic style, making the most of sparse, wet strokes

• His paintings of birds, fish, rocks, and mountains evoke a sense of crazy, creative energy that he apparently also conveyed to those who met him as he wandered across China

British East India Company: 

• Britain’s joint stock company that traded with China 

• Involved in opium wars 

Co-hong:

• Chinese merchant guild in Guangzhou (Canton) that operated monopoly on trade between China and Europe

• Was abolished by the Treaty of Nanjing 

Tea:

• British treasured getting tea from trade with China and wanted cheaper exchange which was outlined in requests to Qianlong, but it was declined  

Opium:

• Drug that was imported from Britain during trade

• Was used for medicinal purposes in China, but discovered it could be used as a drug 

• Chinese got addicted to it, government people were unable to fulfill their roles

Lord George Macartney:  

• 1793: Lord George Macartney (cousin of the king, served as ambassador to Russia & governor of Madras) was sent as an envoy to Qianlong

• His goal was to follow up on Britain’s requests to alter their way of trade w/China (the British wanted to create a market for their goods & get tea cheaper by trading closer to its source in the Yangzi River provinces - also wanted China to deal with other nations through envoys, ambassadors, commercial treaties, and published tariffs, in the way that European nations dealt with each other)

• Didn’t kowtow which was seen as disrespectful 

• his mission failed and his requests were denied, but he did observe how China’s gov’t was ill-prepared for war and other gov’t weaknesses  

Heshen: 

• imperial bodyguard under Qianlong who was promoted to posts normally held by the most experienced officials (controlling revenue, civil service appointments)

• Massive abuses of power

• However, he was corrupt & was executed by his successor 

• Property confiscated amounted to 800mil oz of silver 

White Lotus Rebellion: (1796 to 1804)

• Rebellion of the millenarian White Lotus sect from the hilly frontier areas of Hubei, Sichuan, and Shaanxi provinces

• Took 8 years to suppress this insurrection

Chapter 10: Qing Dynasty (Part 2) (1800-1900)

Population growth in Qing

• 250 million increase in 150 years

• Due to economic prosperity, fewer large wars, and new crops from Americas and longer life expectancies

Yellow River Floods

• Flooded often during Qing rule, damaging a lot of communities, farmland, and buildings

• Deforestation promoted during Qing and the river’s shifting course made it hard

Lin Zexu

• Qing scholar-offical and imperial commissioner who is known for helping trigger the First Opium War

  • British merchants smuggled opium into China to fix the British-Chinese trade imbalance

• Ordered confiscation of 20,000 chests of opium

• Wrote to Queen Victoria questioning the morality of opium smuggling

First Opium War/First Anglo-Chinese War (1839-1842)

• British merchants smuggled opium from India to China to increase demand and address British-Chinese trade deficit

• British beat the Chinese with superior ships and weaponry

• Led to Treaty of Nanjing

Treaty of Nanjing

• First of Unequal Treaties (This was post First Opium War)

• Hong Kong was given to the British

• British had access to five ports

• China paid 21 million silver taels

• Fixed 5% Tariffs

• No more Co-hong

• British citizens weren’t subject to Chinese laws

Unequal Treaties

• Treaty of Nanjing

• Treaty of Tianjin and Convention of Peking (Second Opium War)

• Treaty of Shimonoseki (First Sino-Japanese War)

• Treaty of Beijing (Boxer Rebellion)

• Land was given to foreign powers and their citizens had exclusive rights, China had to pay a lot of money

Taiping Rebellion

• Led by Hong Xiuquan, a religious leader, created a civil war and took over Nanjing

  • “Brother of Jesus”

• Called for abolition of private property, gender equality and land distribution to peasants

• Weakened the Qing Dynasty and killed 20-30 million

Hong Xiuquan

• Leader of Taiping Rebellion and founder of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

• He thought he was Jesus Christ’s younger brother and sought to overthrow Qing

• Failed the civil service exam multiple times

Zeng Guofan

• Confucian scholar, statesman, and military leader who lead the Hunan Army to suppress the Taiping Rebellion

Empress Dowager Cixi

• Ruled Qing China as a regent near the end of the dynasty

• China was in shambles due to Opium Wars, Taiping Rebellion, and Imperialism

• Supported Boxer Rebellion and opposed Hundred Days Reform

Yaqub Beg

• Central Asian adventurer and military leader of Uzbek descent, and ruler of Kashgaria

• He took over the Tarim Basin region during the Qing Dynasty establishing the Kashgar Emirate

Xinjiang

• Large territory of Northwest China

• Was home to Turkic-speaking people like Uyghurs

• Was taken over by Yaqub Beg and was part of the Kashgar Emirate

Li Hongzhang

• Qing Dynasty statesman, diplomat, and military leader who was important during the Self-Strengthening Movement

• Also helped suppress Taiping Rebellion

• Promoted industrialization

California gold rush

• Period of mass migration to California after gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill

• Many Chinese immigrants moved to find gold and gain wealth starting in the 1850s

• Intense discrimination, such as the Foreign Miner’s Tax, making foreigners pay American’s a tax for gold

Shanghai

• Major port city and cultural culture during Qing and in the present day

  • One of the five treaty ports for Britain after Treaty of Nanjing

  • Most significant financial and trade cetner by late Qing

• Center for Western education, modern technology, and printing

Sino-Japanese War (1894/95)

• Conflict between Qing China and Japan over influence in Korea, where Japan won

  • Exposed Qing China’s weakness

• Ended in Treaty of Shimonoseki

  • Li Hongzhang had to oversee treaty

  • Taiwan became Japan’s

  • Liangdong was Japan’s for a little

  • Opened more ports to Japanese

  • 200 million ounces of silver

  • Foreigners could open factories in China

Kang Youwei

• Qing scholar and political reformer who presented Confucianism in a new light

• With Emperor Guangxu, he proposed reforms to modernize the political, educational, and military systems

  • Hundred Days’ Reform, that Empress Dowager Cixi had beef with

• He was exiled and fled China

Liang Qichao

• Qing scholar and reformer who supported reforms

• Followed Kang Youwei and the Hundred Days’ Reform and was exiled after Empress Dowager Cixi ended the reforms in a coup

Hundred Days Reform

• Period of political, educational and social reform initiated by Emperor Guangxu, Kang Youwei, and Liang Qichao in hopes of strengthening Qing Dynasty and modernizing China

  • Modernization of civil service exam to include western subjects like science and law

  • Establishing modern schools

  • Industrialization, railways, and agriculture.

• Empress Dowager Cixi was against the Hundred Days Reform

  • Staged a coup, placing Emperor Guangxu under house arrest and making Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao flee in exile

Boxer Rebellion

• Anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising led by the Boxers

  • Harmonious Fists

  • Imperialism and spheres of influence in China exploited the country

  • Christian missionaries undermined Confucian traditions

  • Qing Dynasty was weakened by Opium Wars, and First Sino-Japanese War

• Boxers were defeated by an eight nation alliance, leading to Boxer Protocol

  • Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and the US)

  • 450 million ounces of silver

  • No civil service exam for 5 years

Chapter 11: Early Twentieth Century

Yuan Shikai

• Chinese military general, politician, and statesman who was important during the late Qing and early Republic of China

• Commanded the Beiyang Army during late Qing

• Negotiated the abdication of the last Qing emperor Puyi and tried to be president

• Became provisional president in 1912 and sidelined leaders like Sun Yatsen to consolidate power

• Declared himself Emperor of China in 1915 to try and establish a new dynasty

Yan Fu

• Late Qing scholar and reformer who is known for introducing Western ideas of political theory, science, and social thought to China

• He translated Western texts into Chinese to introduce them to the Chinese

• Popularized Social Darwinism (Survival of the fittest for nations)

• Believed China’s weakness stemmed from its failure to embrace Western learning and modernize

Sun Yatsen

• Chinese revolutionary, political leader, and a founding father of the ROC

• Founded the KMT (Kuomintang) to unify China and implement modernization

• Developed the Three Principles of the People

  • Nationalism, Democracy, and Economic Reform

• Inspired the 1911 Revolution and later became the provisional president of the ROC

• Also founded the Tongmenghui

1911 (Xinhai) Revolution

• Nationalist uprising that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. 

• Order of events summarized

  • Uprising in Wuchang, Hubei province

  • Other provinces declared independence

  • Emperor Puyi abdicated, ending the Qing Dynasty

  • Sun Yat-sen was declared Provisional President of the ROC

  • Sun Yat-sen resigned in favor of Yuan Shikai

Warlord period

• Chaotic era following the death of Yuan Shikai, where warlords competed for power, dividing China into fragmented territories

• The KMT and CCP gained influence during this time

• May Fourth Movement emerged during this time

• Ended when the KMT launched the ___

Chen Duxiu

• Founder of the CCP and important figure during the New Culture Movement

  • New Culture Movement aimed to modernize Chinese thought and culture

• Believed in anti-Confucianism, he thought it hindered China’s progress

• Founded the New Youth Magazine

• Strong proponent of Marxist ideology, including socialism

• Was later expelled from the CCP and opposed the CCP and KMT alliance

Hu Shi

• Philosopher and scholar known for leadership in the New Culture Movement and advocacy for vernacular Chinese in literature and education

• Modernized Chinese language and literature

• He was a pragmatist, meaning he is more about practicality

• Promoted ideas of Western-based thought and advocated for modern education

Lu Xun

• Writer and cultural critic who is called the father of modern Chinese literature

  • He wrote in vernacular Chinese

• Critiqued traditional Confucian values and feudalism

• Leader in the New Culture Movement, promoting individual freedom, science, and modern thought.

• He sided with the CCP

May Fourth Movement

• Political, cultural, and intellectual movement that was triggered by the China’s dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles (WWI)

  • Called for the end of imperialism, feudalism, and corruption

• 3,000 students gathered at Tiananmen Square to protest

  • Rejected Confucian values as they called for protest and went against the idea of respecting elders

• Chinese government eventually refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles

New Culture Movement

• Intellectual and cultural movement that called for the rejection of Confucian values and the adoption of Western ideas, like science and democracy

  • Hoped to modernize the country

• Important figures include

  • Chen Duxiu

  • Hu Shi

  • Lu Xun

  • Liang Qichao

  • Li Dazhao

Nationalist Party (KMT/Kuomintang)

• Founded by Sun Yat-sen based on the Three Principles of the People

  • Nationalism, Democracy, and Economic Reform

• Chiang Kai-Shek became the party leader after Yat-sen’s death

• Was in an alliance with the CCP, but ended after Chiang Kai-Shek purged a lot of communists

• Retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after its defeat by the CCP

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

• Founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, advocating for Marxist principles

• Was in an alliance with the KMT until Chiang Kai-Shek turned against the CCP

• Under attack from the KMT, CCP forced led by Mao Zedong, embarked on the Long March to evade KMT forces

• CCP and KMT formed a Second United Front against the Japanese during WWII, and resumed the civil war after

• Defeated the KMT in 1949, founding the PRC

Leninist Party-State

• Form of government based on Vladimir Lenin where the Communist Party serves as the sole supreme authority, controlling the state, society and economy

• This model shaped the Soviet Union, the PRC, and Vietnam, Cuba, and North Korea

Three Principles of the People

• Set of political and philosophical ideas developed by Sun Yatsen, founding father of the ROC and the KMT

• Nationalism

  • Achieve national unity and end foreign domination

• Democracy

  • Establish a government of the people with democratic institutions

• People’s Livelihood

  • Address economic inequality and improve the living conditions of the Chinese people

Qiu Jin

• Revolutionary, feminist, poet and martyr who fought for women’s rights

• Studied in Japan and was influenced by feminist and revolutionary ideas

• Opposed footbinding and arranged marriages

• Joined the Tongmenghui led by Sun Yat-sen

• Became a martyr after she was captured and tortured

Chiang Kai-shek

• Military and political leader who led the KMT after Sun Yat-sen

• Led the Northern Expedition, a military campaign to unify China during Warlord Period

• Launched the Shanghai Massacre, ending the KMT-CCP alliance and killing communists

• Formed a temporary Second United Front to fight Japan with the CCP

• Fled to Taiwan after KMT defeat

New Life Movement

• Social reform campaign launched in 1934 by Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMY to promote traditional Confucian values to unify China

• Promoted clean living and discouraged vices like opium smoking

• Served as a counterpoint to the CCP

Rape of Nanking (Nanjing)

• Imperial Japanese Army invaded China in 1937, killing, looting, and sexually assaulting many in the capital

  • During Second Sino-Japanese War, which was during WWII

  • 20K to 80K were raped and killed

• Led to global outrage, but Japan denied the events

Zhou Enlai

• First Premier of the PRC

• Played a critical role during the Long March

• Acted as a moderating influence during the Cultural Revolution

Mao Zedong

• Founded the People’s Republic of China

• Emerged as a key leader during the Long March

• Led the CCP to victory against the KMT

• Launched the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution

  • GLP attempted to rapidly industrialize China, but led to famine

• Developed Mao Zedong Thought

  • His personal interpretations of Marxist thought

Northern Expedition

• Military campaign led by the KMT under Chiang Kai-shek to defeat warlords and unify China

• KMT and CCP formed the First United Front to defeat the warlords

• Established the Nanjing government, which ruled China under Chiang Kai-Shek’s leadership

Long March

• Strategic retreat undertaken by the CCP and its Red Army to evade the KMT

• Mao Zedong emerged as the key leader of the CCP during this time

Yan’an

• This is where the CCP reached during the Long March and established base

Mao Zedong Thought

• Political and ideological system which adapted Marxism-Leninism to China

• Mass Line Principle

  • Leaders must listen to the needs of the masses

Lin Biao

• High ranking politician devoted to Mao -> got skeptical Mao was going to turn on him -> plans assassination -> Lin’s daughter exposes plan-> flees but plane crashes

Chapter 12: People’s Republic

Great Leap Forward (1958)

• Led by Mao Zedong

• Mobilized the country to speed up industrialization (poor nation but a mighty one) but resulted in a human-made famine of tragic proportions

• A socio-economic campaign led by Mao Zedong from 1958 to 1962 aimed at rapidly industrializing China and collectivizing agriculture.

• The plan included large-scale collective farms and the establishment of communes.

• It resulted in a severe famine that caused millions of deaths and led to widespread economic disruption.

• Mao's policies were later deemed disastrous, and the Great Leap Forward was officially abandoned.

Korean War  

• A conflict between North Korea (backed by China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (supported by the United Nations, primarily the U.S.) from 1950 to 1953.

• China entered the war in support of North Korea, pushing UN forces back.

• The war ended in an armistice, with the Korean Peninsula divided at the 38th parallel, leading to the continued division between North and South Korea.

Five Antis  

• A campaign launched in 1952 by the Chinese Communist Party to eliminate corruption, waste, tax evasion, bribery, and theft in Chinese society and business.

• It targeted businesspeople and industrial leaders, leading to many arrests and forced confessions.

• The campaign further consolidated Mao’s control over the economy and society.

Land redistribution/collectivization

• A program carried out in the early years of the People's Republic of China, especially in the 1950s, where land was redistributed from landlords to peasants.

• This led to the formation of collective farms, which were later merged into communes during the Great Leap Forward.

• The program aimed to reduce class distinctions but resulted in economic difficulties and social upheaval.

Liu Shaoqi 

• A prominent Chinese Communist Party leader and theorist, second in command after Mao.

• Played a key role in implementing land reforms and the early economic policies of the PRC.

• During the Cultural Revolution, he was purged by Mao and died in disgrace.

“Let a hundred flowers bloom” Anti-Rightist Campaign 

• A campaign initiated by Mao Zedong in 1956 encouraging intellectuals and the public to express their opinions freely.

• It was followed by an Anti-Rightist Campaign, which persecuted those who spoke out against the government.

• The movement was intended to encourage diverse opinions but led to widespread repression and fear.

Anti-Rightist Campaign

• A crackdown in the late 1950s and early 1960s following the Hundred Flowers Campaign, where those who criticized the government were branded as "rightists."

• Many intellectuals, professionals, and others were persecuted, leading to imprisonment, forced labor, and even death.

Three Hard Years 

• The period from 1959 to 1961 was marked by widespread famine, economic difficulties, and harsh living conditions caused by the Great Leap Forward.

• It led to millions of deaths and severe disruptions in agriculture and industry.

• The disaster deeply affected China's population and economy.

Ding Ling 

• A Chinese writer and feminist, known for her works that focused on the struggles of women and social reform.

• She was associated with the Chinese Communist Party but faced persecution during the Cultural Revolution for her perceived ideological deviations.

• Her works challenged traditional gender roles and social expectations.

Cultural Revolution 

• A sociopolitical movement launched by Mao Zedong from 1966 to 1976 to preserve communist ideology by removing capitalist, traditional, and cultural elements from Chinese society.

• It involved the mobilization of the Red Guards, violent mass campaigns, and persecution of intellectuals, artists, and anyone deemed counter-revolutionary.

• The movement caused widespread social, political, and economic turmoil.

Jiang Qing 

• Mao Zedong's wife and a key figure in the Cultural Revolution.

• She was a strong supporter of radical policies and was one of the leading members of the Gang of Four.

• Jiang Qing promoted the persecution of intellectuals and the arts, and after Mao's death, she was arrested and sentenced to prison for her role in the Cultural Revolution.

Gang of Four 

• A political group led by Jiang Qing, including Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen.

• They were instrumental in implementing the Cultural Revolution's policies, promoting radical Maoist ideas.

• After Mao's death, they were arrested and blamed for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution.

Little Red Book 

• A collection of Mao Zedong's quotes and writings, published during the Cultural Revolution.

• It became a symbol of Maoist ideology and was carried by millions of Red Guards and citizens.

• The book was used to indoctrinate the population in revolutionary thought and Marxist-Leninist principles.

Red Guards 

• A mass student movement that played a central role in the Cultural Revolution, tasked with carrying out Mao's orders to eliminate perceived counter-revolutionary elements.

• They attacked intellectuals, destroyed cultural artifacts, and enforced Maoist thought across China.

• The movement was eventually suppressed as the chaos it caused became uncontrollable.

Deng Xiaoping 

• A Chinese political leader who emerged as the paramount leader after Mao's death.

• Deng was instrumental in reforming China's economy, transitioning from a planned economy to a socialist market economy.

• He oversaw the Four Modernizations (agriculture, industry, defense, and science/technology) and promoted pragmatic policies.

Tiananmen incident 

• Refers to the 1989 protests and subsequent massacre in Tiananmen Square, where pro-democracy demonstrators, mostly students, called for political reforms.

• The government declared martial law, and the military was ordered to suppress the protests, resulting in hundreds or possibly thousands of deaths.

• The incident is heavily censored in China and remains a sensitive topic.

Three Gorges Dam 

• A massive hydroelectric dam on the Yangtze River, completed in 2012, designed to control flooding, generate electricity, and improve river navigation.

• It is one of the largest infrastructure projects in the world but has been criticized for its environmental impact, displacement of people, and ecological changes.

Xi Jinping

• Current president of China, leader of the Chinese Communist Party, and central figure in Chinese politics since 2012.

• Xi has promoted the idea of the Chinese Dream, emphasizing national rejuvenation, stronger centralized control, and China's role in global leadership.

• He has consolidated power, leading to an increased focus on ideological conformity and strengthened party control over all aspects of society.