Chapter 3 | Job Design and Analysis

Introduction

• This chapter discusses designing and analyzing jobs.

  • Understanding job design requires knowledge of how jobs fit into the overall organizational structure.

Setting Up an Organization

• When starting a business, founders must determine how to produce goods or services.

• Key questions to address:

  • What goods or services should we provide?

  • How do we get from our current state to our desired state?

  • What process should we adopt?

  • What inputs do we need?

Defining the Organization’s Strategy

• What goods or services to provide?

  • The response to this question aligns with customer needs that the business aims to address.

• How do we get from where we are to where we want to be?

  • This defines the organization's overall strategy.

  • A key consideration is whether to compete based on price or product uniqueness.

• Choosing the Process

  • Once a strategy is set, the transformation process must be determined.

  • The choice depends on whether the organization focuses on mass production or customization.

  • The decision on technology impacts:

    • Equipment needed

    • Raw materials required

    • Tasks required for production

  • A job is defined as a group of tasks.

  • A position is a job assigned to a specific individual.

  • Several positions may exist for a single job.

• Determining Inputs

  • Inputs include raw materials and human resources.

  • The type of inputs depends on the chosen strategy:

    • Cost minimization strategy: Uses standardized procedures and highly specialized roles.

    • Differentiation strategy: Requires innovation, creativity, and employees with diverse skill sets.

Designing a Job

• Job design plays a crucial role in performance.

• Errors and disasters are often attributed to human error or the environment rather than poor job design (Campion and Thayer, 1987).

• Job design involves defining how work will be done by specifying tasks to be performed.

Job Redesign

• Job redesign refers to modifying an existing job design.

Approaches to Job Design

• Various approaches exist, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

• The chosen approach depends on the organization’s overall strategy.

Job Designed for Efficiency

• Efficiency is achieved by dividing jobs into simple, repetitive tasks.

• This process is known as work specialization.

  • Work Specialization (also known as Division of Labor) refers to the degree to which tasks in an organization are divided into smaller, specific jobs. It is a fundamental principle of organizational structure that focuses on breaking down complex work into simpler, repetitive tasks performed by different employees.

• Employees quickly learn skills and become highly efficient.

Frederick W. Taylor’s Contribution

• Advocated for time and motion studies in 1911 to determine the most efficient way to perform a task.

• Once the best method is identified, workers are selected, trained, and monitored to maximize efficiency (Morgan, 2006).

Examples of Efficiency-Based Job Design

• Assembly line production:

  • Ford Motor Company introduced the moving assembly line in 1913.

  • Reduced Model T chassis assembly time from 125 hours to 1.5 hours.

  • Allowed Ford to lower production costs and reduce car prices.

• Fast food industry (e.g., McDonald's):

  • Jobs are broken down into standardized tasks (e.g., making hamburgers, taking orders).

  • Employees follow strict procedures for efficiency and consistency.

• Bank loan processing:

  • The process is divided into specialized tasks (e.g., one employee checks requirements, another processes the loan, a different department handles disbursement).

Limitations of Work Specialization

• Repetitive tasks can lead to:

  • Boredom and fatigue.

  • Lower productivity and quality.

  • High absenteeism and turnover.

• Ford Motor Company’s Solution (1914):

  • Introduced a five-dollar daily wage, doubling existing wages.

  • Reduced work hours from nine to eight.

  • Resulted in lower turnover and higher worker satisfaction.

• Downside of Job Specialization

  • While it enhances efficiency, it stifles creativity.

  • Limits personal growth and development opportunities for workers.

Jobs Designed for Motivation

Excessive job specialization can lead to:

• Boredom and fatigue.

• Reduced productivity.

• Job dissatisfaction.

Job Redesign for Motivation

• Researchers have explored ways to redesign jobs to enhance motivation.

• Herzberg (1968): Suggested job enrichment by adding more responsibility.

• Argyris (1964): Recommended redesigning jobs to promote psychological success and self-esteem.

• Hackman & Oldham (1976): Developed the Job Characteristics Model.

Job Characteristics Model

• Jobs are more motivating when they include:

  1. Skill Variety – The range of skills required to perform a job.

  2. Task Identity – Completing a whole task rather than just a part.

  3. Task Significance – The impact of the job on others.

  4. Autonomy – The level of independence in deciding how to perform tasks.

  5. Feedback – The extent to which the job provides information on performance.

Psychological States & Job Outcomes

• When a job possesses these characteristics, employees experience:

  • Meaningfulness of work (through skill variety, task identity, and task significance).

  • Sense of responsibility (through autonomy).

  • Knowledge of results (through feedback).

• These psychological states mediate the relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction and performance (Morgan, 2006).

Jobs Designed to Address Physical and Mental Limitations

• Alternative job design approaches supplement job specialization by considering the work environment and equipment used by workers.

Biological Job Design Approach (Ergonomics)

• Focuses on minimizing physical strain and biological risks (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

• Rooted in biomechanics, work physiology, occupational medicine, and anthropometry.

• Aims to create a worker-friendly environment by improving equipment, furniture, and workspace layout.

• Ergonomics principles for workplace safety (HSA, 2006):

  • Avoid bending forward.

  • Avoid twisting the trunk and straining the back.

  • Alternate posture and movements.

  • Avoid excessive reaching and above-shoulder tasks.

  • Limit the weight of lifted loads.

  • Use mechanical aids.

  • Avoid carrying loads with one hand.

International Ergonomics Standards

• The International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Ergonomics Association (IEA) provide ergonomics checkpoints to ensure a safe and healthy work environment (ILO & IEA, 2010).

• Checklist covers:

  • Materials storage and handling.

  • Hand tools and machine safety.

  • Workstation design and lighting.

  • Hazardous substances and workplace welfare facilities.

• Ergonomics applies not only to physically demanding jobs but also to office jobs (e.g., prolonged sitting, repetitive wrist movements from computer use).

Perceptual-Motor Job Design Approach

• Focuses on reducing cognitive strain and mental overload.

• Rooted in experimental psychology and human factors engineering (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

• Aims to minimize errors and accidents by designing jobs that align with workers’ mental capacities.

• Key principles:

  • Ensure adequate lighting.

  • Make displays and gauges clear and readable.

  • Develop user-friendly computer programs.

  • Reduce memory and information-processing demands.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Job Designs

1. Efficiency-Based Job Design

• Advantages:

  • Simple tasks require minimal training.

  • Jobs are less stressful with low mental demands.

  • Lower chance of errors.

• Disadvantages:

  • Dissatisfaction and demotivation due to repetitive tasks.

  • High absenteeism and turnover (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

2. Motivational Job Design

• Advantages:

  • Encourages high skill variety, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

  • Leads to higher performance, motivation, and job satisfaction.

  • Promotes job involvement and reduces absenteeism.

• Disadvantages:

  • Requires high-level skills, making hiring more difficult.

  • Longer training periods.

  • Higher mental demands, increasing risk of errors (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

3. Biological Job Design (Ergonomics-Based)

• Advantages:

  • Reduces physical strain and fatigue.

  • Enhances worker safety, health, and comfort.

  • Results in higher job satisfaction and lower absenteeism.

• Disadvantages:

  • High implementation costs, especially during initial setup.

  • Requires investment in ergonomic equipment and workplace redesign (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

4. Perceptual-Motor Job Design

• Advantages:

  • Simplifies tasks, requiring less training.

  • Reduces mental overload, leading to fewer errors and accidents.

• Disadvantages:

  • Lower job satisfaction and motivation due to simplified, repetitive tasks (Campion & Thayer, 1987).

Managerial Importance of Job Design

• Understanding job design approaches helps managers improve:

  • Job satisfaction.

  • Performance and motivation.

  • Workplace safety.

  • Training costs and efficiency.

• Managers can redesign jobs to address organizational concerns and improve employee well-being.

What is Job Analysis?

• Job analysis involves identifying tasks and responsibilities required for a job.

• It defines the job's relationship to other jobs and its work environment.

• The process starts with understanding the workflow to identify specific tasks involved in producing an output.

• It determines:

  • Equipment used to aid the worker.

  • Relationships between jobs and workers.

  • Inputs required for the process.

• The results of job analysis include job descriptions and job specifications.

Job Description

• formal document that outlines the responsibilities, qualifications, skills, and working conditions of a specific job role. It serves as a guide for both employers and employees by defining what is expected from a job position.

• Includes:

  • Job title.

  • Job summary.

  • Key duties, tasks, and responsibilities.

• Helps define what the job entails.

Job Specification

• Identifies Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other Characteristics (KSAOs) required for job performance.

• Factors considered:

  • Equipment used → Determines knowledge and skills needed to operate it.

  • Job relationships → Identifies interaction with other jobholders.

  • Inputs → Determines knowledge and skills required to handle them.

  • Job context → Defines work conditions and additional necessary characteristics.

Definitions of Key KSAOs

• Knowledge → Awareness and understanding of facts, information, data, and procedures.

• Skill → Ability to apply knowledge through training, experience, and practice (Merriam-Webster).

• Ability → General capacity to perform a task (Merriam-Webster).

• Other Characteristics → Traits like personality, physical abilities, and certifications needed for success.

Importance of Job Specifications

• KSAOs must be based on a careful study of job qualifications.

• Should not be subjective but reflect real job requirements for successful performance.

Why Do a Job Analysis?

• Foundation of job design → Essential for structuring jobs effectively.

• Supports various HR functions → Affects recruitment, selection, training, performance assessment, promotions, compensation, and workplace safety.

Role in Recruitment & Selection

• Identifies required job roles and job specifications to attract suitable applicants.

• Guides organizations in screening candidates based on job requirements.

• Ensures selection methods align with specific job demands (e.g., physical abilities, technical skills).

Performance Management & Employee Movements

• Job descriptions provide a framework for setting annual goals and evaluating performance.

• Informs promotions and transfers, ensuring employees meet the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) required for new roles.

• Training & Development

  • Identifies performance gaps due to deficiencies in knowledge, skills, or abilities.

  • Training programs are designed to enhance employee capabilities based on job specifications.

Job Evaluation & Compensation

• Jobs are rated based on:

  • Skills required

  • Responsibilities involved

  • Effort needed

  • Working conditions

• Forms the basis for salary structures, ensuring fair compensation within the organization.

• More complex jobs requiring higher knowledge and skills are compensated more.

Health & Safety Considerations

• Identifies hazardous job conditions and safety measures needed.

• Ensures employees working in risky environments receive proper protective gear.

Keeping Job Descriptions Updated

• Changes in tasks, equipment, or work conditions require updated job analyses.

• Outdated job descriptions can have serious repercussions, affecting hiring, performance, compensation, and safety.

How Is Job Analysis Done?

• Conducted by:

  • HR department and supervisor.

  • Hired consultant (for specialized expertise).

  • Owner-manager (in small organizations).

General Process of Job Analysis:

1. Planning → Define objectives and scope of the job analysis.

2. Preparing instruments → Develop tools such as:

   • Survey questionnaires

   • Interview guides

   • Other data collection methodologies

3. Determining data collection methods → Choose the best approach:

   • Observation

   • Interviews

   • Surveys

   • Work logs or diaries

4. Processing collected data → Analyze information to identify key job tasks, responsibilities, and requirements.

5. Writing job descriptions & specifications → Document job details, including required skills, knowledge, and working conditions.

6. Validation → Ensure accuracy by reviewing with employees and supervisors.

7. Finalization → Approve and integrate job descriptions into HR functions (recruitment, training, evaluation, etc.).
   

1. Planning for Job Analysis

• Determine objectives → Define the purpose and expected outcomes of the job analysis.

• Communicate the process → Inform all involved parties, including:

  • Job incumbents

  • Supervisors

  • Managers

• Explain key details → Provide an overview of:

  • The job analysis process.

  • The roles and responsibilities of each participant.

• Schedule coordination → Ensure those involved can integrate job analysis activities into their work schedules.

• Clarify the focus → Emphasize that the analysis documents the job as it is done, not as it should be done.

2. Preparation of Instruments for Job Analysis

Define the objective →

• Identify the specific purpose of the job analysis (e.g., job evaluation, recruitment, training).

Ensure appropriate data collection →

• Avoid collecting too much or too little information for efficiency and accuracy.

Align with job evaluation framework →

• Understand compensable factors such as:

  • Skills

  • Knowledge

  • Responsibilities

  • Effort

  • Working conditions

Specify minimum job requirements →

• Example: If a job requires only a high school diploma, indicate that explicitly.

  • Some organizations may adjust requirements (e.g., requiring college education for recruitment flexibility).

Consider training needs →

• Define skill levels and competencies.

• List tasks and responsibilities with performance standards.

Balance comprehensiveness and efficiency

• → Collect enough data for HR functions without making the process overly time-consuming.

Key data to collect:

• Job output → What the job produces.

• Processes & procedures → Steps taken to complete tasks.

• Equipment & tools → What enables workers to perform the job.

• Collaboration → Interaction with coworkers for task completion.

• Time requirements & performance standards → Expected duration for tasks.

• Physical demands → Example: Standing for long hours.

• Materials used → Raw materials and how they are handled.

• Knowledge & skills → Required expertise for operations or processing.

• Hazard exposure → Risk factors in the work environment.

Complete job specification →

Include necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) to perform the job effectively.

3. Data Collection Methods for Job Analysis

Survey Questionnaire:

• Most common method.

• Incumbents answer a prepared questionnaire.

• Requires orientation to ensure accurate responses.

• Focuses on how the job is actually performed, not how it should be performed.

• Fast and efficient but requires job incumbents to have reading and writing proficiency.

• Best suited for simple jobs that are easy to describe.

Interviews:

• Used for more complex jobs.

• Complements the questionnaire method by allowing deeper probing into tasks and processes.

• Conducted by a job analyst to clarify difficult-to-explain job functions.

• Can be time-consuming but provides more detailed insights.

Observation:

• Involves directly watching the job incumbent perform tasks.

• Useful for jobs that are difficult to describe in words.

• Allows job analysts to witness real-time job execution and processes.

• Enables verification of written job descriptions against actual work performed.

Combination of Methods:

• Multiple data collection methods can be used together for more comprehensive job analysis.

• Choosing the right method depends on job complexity and the nature of the tasks involved.

4. Data Processing for Job Analysis

• Data from interviews and questionnaires can be organized in spreadsheet programs.

• Spreadsheets help compare job information across departments or other criteria.

• Organizations may use online questionnaires for automatic data encoding.

• Online data collection enables real-time tracking of responses.

• Automated data entry reduces manual errors and speeds up analysis.

• Facilitates efficient processing and comparison of job-related information.

5. Validation and Finalization of Job Analysis

• The draft job description is reviewed by the incumbent and supervisors.

• Validation ensures the accuracy and completeness of job details.

• Necessary revisions are made based on feedback from stakeholders.

• Once deemed accurate, the job description is finalized.

• The final document is signed by the job analyst and the supervisor.

Legally Bound: HR and Compliance Considerations

• HR functions must align with organizational workflows and legal requirements.

• Legal compliance in job design minimizes legal risks in HR activities.

• Key legal considerations in job analysis:

  • Compliance with national skills standards.

  • Adherence to anti-discrimination laws.

  • Legal protection for specific worker groups (e.g., apprentices, minors, handicapped individuals).

  • Avoidance of prohibited labor-only contracting practices.