Developmental Psychology – Vocabulary Flashcards (60)
Learning Goals
Explain why it is important to research children’s development.
Identify five areas in which children’s lives need to be improved: health and well-being, parenting, education, sociocultural contexts, and social policy.
Discuss processes, periods, cohort effects, and issues in development.
Summarize why research is important in child development, the main theories of child development, and research methods, designs, and challenges.
Why Is Caring for Children Important?
Development: the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues throughout the life span.
Why study children’s development:
Becoming a better parent or educator.
Gaining insight into how childhood experiences shape the person you are today.
Improving the Lives of Children
Important domains in children’s development:
Health and well-being
Parenting
Education
Sociocultural contexts
Social policy
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity
Dimensions of sociocultural context: culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and gender.
Context: the settings influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors in which development occurs.
Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs, and other products of a group passed on across generations.
Cross-cultural studies: comparisons between cultures.
Ethnicity: characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.
SES: an individual’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics; SES implies certain inequalities.
Occupations
Different levels of education
Different levels of power
Different economic resources
Gender: characteristics of people as male and female.
Resilience, Social Policy, and Children’s Development (Part 1)
Some children maintain confidence and perform well despite negative stereotypes or adversity—these are resilient individuals.
Resilience can involve characteristics of the individual, family, and extrafamilial contexts.
Closeness of family relationships plays a crucial role in fostering resilience, as supportive family dynamics can buffer the effects of external stressors and promote emotional stability.
Social policy: a government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens
Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP), Aspen Institute
Figure 1: Characteristics of Resilient Children and Their Contexts
Individual characteristics: good intellectual functioning; appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition; self-confidence and high self-esteem; talents; faith.
Family: close relationship to a caring parent figure; authoritative parenting (warmth, structure, high expectations); socioeconomic advantages.
Extrafamilial context: bonds to caring adults outside the family; connections to positive organizations; attending effective schools.
Figure 2: Exposure to Six Stressors Among Poor and Middle-Income Children
Evans & English (2002) study on six stressors shows poor children face each stressor more frequently than middle-income children.
Data (illustrative):
Family turmoil: poor 0.45 vs middle-income 0.12
Child separation: poor 0.45 vs middle-income 0.14
Violence exposure: poor 0.73 vs middle-income 0.49
Crowding: poor 0.16 vs middle-income 0.07
Excessive noise: poor 0.32 vs middle-income 0.21
Poor housing quality: poor 0.24 vs middle-income 0.03
Social Policy and Development
Social policy: government actions designed to promote the welfare of citizens.
Comprehensive social policies are often created in response to shared social concerns.
Examples:
Child labor laws to protect children.
Federal child-care funding during World War II.
Head Start and other War on Poverty programs.
What Characterizes Development?
Each person develops in ways that are common to all, shared with some others, and unique to themselves.
Psychologists study both shared characteristics and individual differences in development.
Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
Biological processes: changes in the body that affect development.
Cognitive processes: changes in thought, intelligence, and language.
Socioemotional processes: changes in emotions, relationships, and personality.
Development involves the interaction of these processes.
Two emerging fields in this interaction:
Developmental cognitive neuroscience
Link between developmental and cognitive processes in the brain
Developmental social neuroscience
Connections between socioemotional processes and development in the brain
Figure 3: Interactions Among Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
These processes interact and influence one another throughout development.
Periods of Development
Prenatal: conception to birth. (9 months)
Infancy: birth to 18–24 months. Psych. activities are beginning
Early childhood: end of infancy to about 5–6 years (preschool years). more self-sufficient, school readiness skills, play
Middle and late childhood: about 6–11 years (elementary school years). Reading, arithmetic, writing skills. Self-control, achievement becomes a big thing
Adolescence: roughly 10–12 to 18–22 years. Physical changes, independence, though more abstract, more time spent outside of family
Figure 4: Processes and Periods of Development
Development proceeds through prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle/late childhood, and adolescence via biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.
Cohort Effects
Cohort effects: effects due to time of birth, era, and generation, not simply due to age.
Cohort: group of people born at a similar point in history or share similar experiences
Millennials: generation born after 1980; first to come of age in the new millennium; characterized by ethnic diversity and strong connection to technology.
Post-millnial/Gen Z: More connected to technology, more ethnically diverse, and the most educated generation
Issues in Development (Key Debates)
Nature–nurture issue: roles of biology vs. environment.
Nature proponents emphasize biological inheritance.
Nurture proponents emphasize environmental experiences.
Continuity–discontinuity issue: gradual, cumulative change vs. distinct stages.
Continuity: development occurs in a steady, gradual progression, where changes are subtle and build upon previous knowledge and skills. Learning to speak
Discontinuity: development is characterized by abrupt changes, where individuals pass through distinct stages that are qualitatively different from one another, such as moving from a preoperational to a concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory. Puberty
Early–later experience issue: importance of infancy vs. later experiences in development.
Can a bad experience early in life be overriden by a good one later?
Evaluating these issues: all three dimensions contribute across the lifespan; debates continue about their relative strengths.
All have an important part in development
Epigenetic View: development reflects and ongoing, biological interaction between genetic and environmental factors, suggesting that experiences can alter gene expression and influence behavioral outcomes.
The Importance of Research
Science is defined by the methods of investigation, not just what is investigated.
Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable; reduces reliance on personal beliefs.
Scientific method: Conceptualize problem, Collect data, Draw conclusions,Revise theory
Conceptualize problem: Identify the specific questions or issues regarding child development that need exploration, ensuring they are clear and focused.
Draw on theories and develop a hypothesis
Collect information: Gather qualitative and quantitative data through observations, surveys, or experiments to accurately assess various aspects of child development.
Draw conclusions: Analyze the collected data to determine patterns and insights that inform our understanding of child development, while considering the implications of the findings for future research and practice.
Revising research, conclusions, and theories: Consider how emerging evidence may challenge or support existing frameworks, encouraging further exploration and refinement of concepts related to child development.
Theory: an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that explains and predicts phenomena.
Hypothesis: a testable prediction.
Correlation coefficient: describes the strength of association between two variables. For two variables X and Y,
r = rac{ ext{Cov}(X,Y) }{ \sigmaX \sigmaY } = rac{ rac{1}{n}ig( extstyle\sum{i=1}^n (Xi - ar{X})(Y_i - ar{Y})ig) }{ ig( rac{1}{n} extstyleigg( extstyle extstyle extstyleig)ig) }
(Note: simplified representation; see full form below.)Practical note: in data, relationships can be described by r, with values in
-1 ext{ to } +1 indicating perfect negative to perfect positive linear relationships.
Theories of Child Development: Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic theories focus on unconscious processes and emotions; early experiences with parents are emphasized.
Key ideas:
Behavior as a surface characteristic of deeper mind activity.
Symbolic mental processes must be analyzed to understand behavior.
Early relationships shape personality.
Freud: Five Psychosexual Stages
Oral: Birth to 1½ years.
Pleasure centers mouth
Anal: 1½ to 3 years.
Pleasure centers anus
Phallic: 3 to 6 years.
Pleasure centers genitals
Latency: 6 years to puberty.
Represses sexual interest, develop social/intellectual skills
Genital: Puberty onward.
Sexual reawakening, source sexual pleasure → someone outside family
Central idea: pleasure shifts across stages; unresolved conflicts can influence later behavior.
Id: Identity development becomes prominent during the genital stage, as adolescents explore their values, goals, and relationships, significantly shaping their adult personality.
Ego: The ego becomes more refined during this period, helping individuals balance their inner desires with societal expectations, ultimately fostering a sense of self.
Super ego: The superego evolves as adolescents internalize moral standards and values from their parents and society, guiding their actions and decisions while promoting ethical behavior.
Modern revisions: more emphasis cultural experiences and conscious plays greater role F thought
Erikson: Eight Life-Span Stages
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
In this stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers and the environment, which sets the foundation for future relationships and emotional security. A successful resolution leads to a sense of safety, while failure can result in insecurity and anxiety.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Infancy)
During this stage, children begin to assert their independence, making choices and developing a sense of self-control. Successfully achieving autonomy fosters confidence and self-esteem, whereas excessive criticism or control can lead to feelings of shame and doubt in their abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood)
In this stage, children initiate activities and assert themselves creatively, which is essential for their development. When encouraged, they develop a sense of initiative and feel capable of leading their own activities; however, if their efforts are met with discouragement or punishment, feelings of guilt may arise, impacting their willingness to explore and take risks.
Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle/Late Childhood)
During this period, children strive to master new skills and tasks, which fosters a sense of industry and accomplishment. If they are supported and provided with opportunities to succeed, they build confidence in their abilities; conversely, failure or lack of encouragement can lead to feelings of inferiority, causing reluctance to engage in new challenges.
Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
During adolescence, individuals navigate a critical phase where they explore various roles and possibilities in their quest for self-definition. Successful resolution of this stage leads to a solid sense of identity, while confusion or inconsistent feedback can result in uncertainty about personal values and roles.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood)
This stage emphasizes the importance of forming healthy relationships and emotional connections; those who successfully navigate intimacy tend to build meaningful partnerships, whereas individuals who struggle may experience loneliness and social isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
This period focuses on the need to contribute to society and support future generations; those who achieve generativity often feel a sense of fulfillment through parenting, work, and community involvement, while those who fail may feel unproductive and disconnected from the world.
Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)
This final stage involves reflecting on one's life and achievements; individuals who attain integrity typically feel a sense of satisfaction and completeness, whereas those who experience despair may grapple with regrets and a sense of missed opportunities.
Unlike Freud, Erikson emphasized psychosocial changes across the entire lifespan.
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories
Contributions: early experiences matter; family relationships are central; unconscious processes matter; adult changes occur; development spans life.
Criticisms: concepts difficult to test scientifically; data often rely on retrospective reports of uncertain accuracy; overemphasis on sexuality; potential cultural/gender biases.
Theories of Child Development: Cognitive Theories
Focus on conscious thought and mental processes.
Piaget: children actively construct understanding; four stages:
Sensorimotor (Birth–2 years)
Preoperational (2–7 years)
Concrete Operational (7–11 years)
Formal Operational (11 years to adulthood)
Piaget’s Stages (Summary)
Sensorimotor: infants learn through sensory-motor interaction; development of object permanence.
Preoperational: emergence of symbolic thought; egocentrism and centration are common.
Concrete Operational: logical thinking about concrete events; class inclusion and seriation emerge.
Formal Operational: abstract, hypothetical reasoning; systematic planning.
Vygotsky and Information-Processing Theories
Vygotsky: emphasis on culture and social interaction guiding cognitive development; zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding.
zone of proximal development (ZPD): the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a knowledgeable partner.
Scaffolding: a method where an adult or more knowledgeable peer provides temporary support to help a child accomplish a task they cannot complete alone, gradually removing assistance as the child gains independence.
Information-processing theory: focuses on how individuals encode, store, transform, and retrieve information; cognitive processes and memory mechanisms are central. Gradually increasing capacity for learning
Microgenetic method: aims to observe cognitive processes as they unfold during learning. Process of how they acquired the information
Evaluating the Cognitive Theories
Primary contributions: positive view of development, active construction of knowledge, emphasis on cognitive change; Piaget and Vygotsky highlight development of thinking; information-processing provides detailed cognitive-process descriptions.
Criticisms: Piaget’s stages may not be uniform; underestimation of infants' abilities and overestimation in adolescence; limited attention to individual differences; information-processing may not capture broader developmental changes; some argue too little emphasis on unconscious thought.
Theories of Child Development: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Pavlov’s classical conditioning: neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response after pairing with a reflex-eliciting stimulus.
Skinner’s operant conditioning: behavior shaped by consequences; reinforcement increases likelihood; punishment decreases likelihood.
Bandura’s social cognitive theory: cognition, environment, and behavior are reciprocal; observational learning (imitation/modeling) is key.
Bandura’s Reciprocal Model (Figure 9)
Behavior, person/cognition, and environment influence one another in a bidirectional, reciprocal manner.
Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Contributions: emphasis on scientific research; recognition of environmental determinants; observational learning (Bandura); inclusion of cognitive factors (social cognitive theory).
Criticisms: underemphasis on cognition in early behaviorist theories; excessive focus on environmental determinants; insufficient attention to developmental changes; potential undervaluing of human spontaneity and creativity.
Theories of Child Development: Ethological and Ecological Theories
Ethology emphasizes biology, evolution, and critical/sensitive periods; key figures: Konrad Lorenz and John Bowlby.
Ecological theory emphasizes environmental factors; Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory analyzes development across five environmental systems.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (Figure 10)
Microsystem: immediate environments (family, school, peers, neighborhood play area, church group, health services).
Mesosystem: interconnections between microsystems (e.g., family–school interactions).
Exosystem: broader social systems that affect the child indirectly (neighbors, legal services, mass media).
Macrosystem: cultural values, laws, and customs of the society.
Chronosystem: sociohistorical conditions and time since life events.
Figure 12: Comparison of Theories and Issues in Child Development
Nature and nurture; early vs. late experience; continuity vs. discontinuity are evaluated across Psychoanalytic, Cognitive, Behavioral/Social Cognitive, Ethological, and Ecological perspectives; each theory emphasizes different aspects and stages of development.
An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
No single theory fully explains development.
An eclectic approach selects the best features from multiple theories to guide understanding and practice.
Research Methods for Collecting Data: Observation
Observations should be systematic.
Settings:
Laboratory: controlled environment that reduces real-world complexity.
Naturalistic observation: behavior observed in real-world settings.
Other Research Methods
Survey and interview.
Standardized tests: uniform administration and scoring.
Case study: in-depth look at a single individual.
Physiological measures: hormone levels, neuroimaging, heart rate, eye movements.
Research Designs
Descriptive research: observe and describe behavior.
Correlational research: describes the strength of the relationship between two or more variables; correlation coefficient r.
Experiment: manipulation of an independent variable to observe effects on a dependent variable; controls for confounding factors; includes:
Independent variable (manipulated)
Dependent variable (measured)
Experimental group (receives manipulation)
Control group (no manipulation)
Random assignment (participants assigned by chance)
Figure 16: Principles of Experimental Research (Illustrative Example)
Example: aerobic exercise during pregnancy and infant breathing/sleep patterns.
Process: random assignment to experimental/control; measure infant outcomes; stronger positive outcomes in the experimental group suggest causal influence of the manipulated factor.
Time Span of Research
Cross-sectional approach: compare individuals of different ages at one time.
Longitudinal approach: study the same individuals over time, often years or more.
Research Challenges
Conducting ethical research:
Protect the rights of participants.
Do no harm.
Adhere to ethical codes.
APA ethics guidelines:
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception
Minimizing Bias in Research
Gender bias: preconceived ideas about abilities that can limit individuals’ potential; reports can magnify differences.
Cultural and ethnic bias: exclusion of minorities or treating them as deviations from a norm; ethnic gloss: superficial labeling that overgeneralizes a group.
Review (Key Points)
Importance of research in understanding child development and improving children’s lives.
Overview of major theories: Psychoanalytic, Cognitive, Behavioral/Social Cognitive, Ethological, Ecological; plus eclectic orientation.
Methods and designs for collecting data; ethical considerations; bias considerations.
Major developmental periods and cohort effects; nature–nurture and continuity–discontinuity debates.
Accessibility and Alternative Representations
Text alternatives available for figures and slides to assist accessibility.
Some data are provided as text alternatives (e.g., Figure 2 stressors, Piaget stage summaries).
References and Context
Evans, G.W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty. Child Development, 73, 1238–1248.
Millennial cohort characteristics: ethnic diversity and tech connectivity, born after 1980.
Foundational ideas explored across chapters: neurodevelopment, cognitive development, psychosocial development, and ecological contexts.
Key Formulas and Notations (Summary)
Correlation coefficient (relationship strength):
r = rac{ ext{Cov}(X,Y) }{ \sigmaX \sigmaY } = rac{ rac{1}{n}ig( extstyle\sum{i=1}^n (Xi - ar{X})(Y_i - ar{Y})ig) }{ ig( rac{1}{n} extstyleig( extstyle ext{Var}(X)ig)ig)^{1/2} ig( rac{1}{n} extstyleig( ext{Var}(Y)ig)^{1/2} }The basic structure of the Bronfenbrenner model includes five systems: ext{microsystem}, ext{mesosystem}, ext{exosystem}, ext{macrosystem}, ext{chronosystem}.
Piaget’s stage model (ages approximate):
Sensorimotor: Birth–2 years
Preoperational: 2–7 years
Concrete Operational: 7–11 years
Formal Operational: 11 years–adulthood
The five stages of Freud’s psychosexual development and Erikson’s eight stages emphasize different emphases on early experiences and psychosocial factors across the lifespan.