CH 20-29 History exam

Key Terms in the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era

The Meter as a Unit of Measure

• Definition: A unit of length in the metric system, introduced during the French Revolution as part of a broader effort to standardize measurements across France and, eventually, the world. One meter is equivalent to approximately 39.37 inches.

France: Program of De-Christianization

• Concept: During the French Revolution, especially in the radical phase, the Revolutionary government sought to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church in French society. This included the closure of churches, removal of religious symbols, and promotion of secular values.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Lifespan: 1769-1821

• Role: French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its aftermath. He established the Napoleonic Empire, implementing significant reforms and expanding French influence across Europe.

Agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII

• Name: Concordat of 1801

• Description: An agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII that restored some relations between the French state and the Catholic Church. It recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of the French but maintained state control over church affairs.

The Napoleonic Code of Law

• Full Name: Code Napoléon

• Description: A comprehensive set of laws established by Napoleon in 1804. It laid the foundation for modern legal systems in many countries by promoting legal equality, property rights, and civil liberties, while also reinforcing patriarchal norms.

Causes of the French Revolution

• Factors:

  • Economic distress, including financial crises and food shortages.

  • Social inequality between the estates (nobility, clergy, and commoners).

  • Political conflict and corruption within the monarchy.

  • Enlightenment ideas advocating for liberty, equality, and democracy.

King Louis XVI

• Lifespan: 1754-1793

• Role: The last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. His inability to address financial problems and political unrest led to his eventual execution by guillotine.

The Estates General

• Definition: A representative assembly in France that included representatives from the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. It was convened in 1789 to address the financial crisis and was a key event leading to the French Revolution.

The Third Estate

• Definition: The largest of the three estates, consisting of commoners including peasants, artisans, and bourgeoisie. They were the driving force behind many revolutionary changes, advocating for greater political representation and equality.

The Tennis Court Oath

• Date: June 20, 1789

• Event: A pivotal moment in the early French Revolution when members of the Third Estate vowed not to disband until a new constitution was established for France, marking their commitment to the revolutionary cause.

Storming of the Bastille

• Date: July 14, 1789

• Event: The attack on the Bastille prison in Paris, which became a symbol of the revolution. It was an act of defiance against royal authority and is celebrated annually in France as Bastille Day.

The "First" French Revolution

• Timeframe: 1789-1799

• Description: The period of revolutionary change that led to the end of the French monarchy, the establishment of the French Republic, and significant social and political reforms.

Constitutional Monarchy

• Concept: A form of government where a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. During the French Revolution, the monarchy was briefly transformed into a constitutional monarchy before being abolished.

Republic

• Definition: A form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter" and the head of state is elected or appointed rather than inheriting the position. The French Republic was established after the abolition of the monarchy.

The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

• Period: A radical phase of the French Revolution characterized by mass executions and political purges led by the Jacobins. It aimed to suppress counter-revolutionary activities but resulted in widespread fear and violence.

The Committee of Public Safety

• Role: A government body established during the French Revolution to oversee and ensure the security of the Republic. It played a central role during the Reign of Terror, with leaders like Maximilien Robespierre exerting significant control over revolutionary policies and actions.

Chapter 24

Key Figures and Concepts in Science and Philosophy

Marie Curie

• Lifespan: 1867-1934

• Achievements: Pioneering physicist and chemist known for her research on radioactivity. She won Nobel Prizes in both Physics (1903, with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel) and Chemistry (1911) for her work on radium and polonium.

Albert Einstein

• Lifespan: 1879-1955

• Achievements: Renowned physicist known for his theory of relativity, which revolutionized the understanding of space, time, and energy. His famous equation, E=mc², describes the equivalence of mass and energy.

Sigmund Freud

• Lifespan: 1856-1939

• Achievements: Founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud’s theories on the unconscious mind and the significance of dreams were groundbreaking.

Evolutionary Theory and British Science

British Scientists & Evolutionary Theory

• Context: British scientists played a crucial role in the development and popularization of evolutionary theory, particularly through Charles Darwin’s work. This period saw significant debates and discussions about the implications of evolution on science and society.

Charles Darwin

• Lifespan: 1809-1882

• Achievements: Naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, outlined in his seminal work "On the Origin of Species" (1859). His ideas profoundly impacted biology and the understanding of life’s diversity.

Natural Selection

• Concept: Darwin’s mechanism for evolution, where organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on to the next generation.

Variation

• Concept: The differences between individuals within a species, which is crucial for natural selection. Variation can arise through mutations, genetic recombination, and other processes.

Creationism

• Concept: The belief that the universe and life were created by a divine being in a way that is often literal and in contrast to evolutionary theory. Creationism challenges the scientific understanding of biological diversity and origins.

Social and Cultural Figures

Oscar Wilde

• Lifespan: 1854-1900

• Achievements: Irish playwright, poet, and critic known for his wit and flamboyant style. His works include "The Picture of Dorian Gray" and "The Importance of Being Earnest." Wilde was also known for his imprisonment for "gross indecency" due to his homosexuality.

Friedrich Nietzsche

• Lifespan: 1844-1900

• Achievements: German philosopher known for his critique of traditional moral values and religion. His concepts of the “Übermensch” (Overman) and the “will to power” challenged existing ethical and philosophical norms.

Social and Cultural Contexts

Religiosity of Late Nineteenth-Century Europe

• Concept: The late 19th century in Europe was marked by a decline in traditional religious authority and an increase in secularism, although religious institutions and beliefs continued to play significant roles in many societies.

National Imperialism

• Concept: The policy or ideology of extending a nation's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means. National imperialism was driven by desires for economic gain, strategic advantage, and cultural dominance.

Competition for Markets to Sell Finished Goods

• Concept: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, industrialized nations competed to secure markets for their manufactured goods. This competition often drove colonial expansion and economic policies.

Fear of Losing Access to Raw Materials

• Concept: Industrialized nations feared losing access to essential raw materials, which were crucial for their economies. This fear drove imperialistic policies and the quest for colonies rich in resources.

Perceived Link Between Western Christianity and "Civilization"

• Concept: The belief that Western Christianity was intrinsically linked to the concept of "civilization." This idea often justified colonialism and the imposition of Western values on other cultures.

Social Darwinism

• Concept: A misapplication of Darwinian theory to social and economic contexts, suggesting that "survival of the fittest" justified social inequality, imperialism, and laissez-faire capitalism. It argued that certain races or nations were superior and destined to dominate others.

The Advanced Technologies of the White Europeans

• Concept: The technological advancements of European nations during the 19th century, such as industrial machinery, transportation, and weaponry, which were often used to assert dominance over other regions.

A Firm Belief in the Moral Superiority of the White Race

• Concept: A racist ideology prevalent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that claimed the superiority of the white race over other races. This belief was used to justify colonialism, imperialism, and discriminatory practices.

Chapter 25

World War I: Key Terms and Concepts

The First World War

• Timeframe: 1914-1918

• Description: A global conflict centered in Europe, involving many of the world's great powers. It was characterized by trench warfare, massive casualties, and significant political changes.

United States Entry into War

• Date: April 6, 1917

• Reason: The U.S. entered World War I due to multiple factors, including unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the Zimmermann Telegram, which proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the U.S.

U.S. Profits from the War

• Concept: The U.S. economy saw significant economic benefits during the war through the sale of arms and supplies to Allied nations, which led to increased industrial production and economic growth.

Role of Industrial Labor

• Concept: Industrial labor was crucial during the war for producing weapons, ammunition, and other war supplies. The war effort led to increased employment opportunities, including for women and minorities, in factories and production facilities.

Soviet

• Definition: A political council or assembly in the former Soviet Union, often associated with the government structures of the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Soviet state.

Lenin

• Full Name: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870-1924)

• Role: Leader of the Bolshevik Party and key figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. He established the Soviet state and served as its leader until his death.

The Balfour Declaration of 1917

• Date: November 2, 1917

• Content: A statement by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour expressing support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, which was then under Ottoman rule.

Palestine

• Region: A territory in the Middle East that became a focal point of international interest and conflict following World War I, particularly regarding Jewish and Arab nationalist aspirations.

Zionism

• Concept: A political and cultural movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. It gained significant momentum during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Tsar Nicholas II

• Lifespan: 1868-1918

• Role: The last Emperor of Russia, whose reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire. He was executed by Bolsheviks following the Russian Revolution.

Woodrow Wilson

• Lifespan: 1856-1924

• Role: The 28th President of the United States, who led the country through World War I and proposed the Fourteen Points as a basis for peace negotiations.

Sixteen Points

• Concept: Originally proposed as the Fourteen Points, Woodrow Wilson's plan for a just and lasting peace after World War I. The points included ideas for self-determination, free trade, and the creation of the League of Nations.

Treaty of Versailles

• Date: Signed on June 28, 1919

• Content: The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. It also established the League of Nations and redrew national boundaries.

League of Nations

• Concept: An international organization established after World War I to promote peace and cooperation among countries. It was a precursor to the United Nations but struggled to prevent future conflicts.

Austria-Hungary and Serbian Nationalism

• Concept: The desire for independence and national unity among ethnic Serbs, particularly in the context of Austria-Hungary's control over Slavic regions, contributed to the tensions leading up to World War I.

Total War

• Concept: A type of warfare where the entire resources and population of a country are mobilized towards the war effort, including economic, industrial, and civilian resources.

The Central Powers

• Countries: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. These nations were opposed by the Allied Powers during World War I.

The Triple Entente Included

• Countries: France, Russia, and Great Britain. This alliance was formed in response to the growing power of the Central Powers and played a major role in the war.

Reasons for the Outbreak of World War I

• Factors: Complex interplay of nationalism, militarism, imperialism, and alliance systems. Specific triggers included the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, rising tensions among European powers, and entangled alliances.

Military Mobilization

• Concept: The process of preparing and organizing a country’s armed forces for war. This included drafting soldiers, mobilizing resources, and planning military strategies.

The Schlieffen Plan

• Concept: Germany’s military strategy designed to quickly defeat France in the west and then redirect forces to fight Russia in the east. The plan aimed to avoid a prolonged two-front war but ultimately failed.

Two-Front War for Germany

• Concept: Germany’s struggle to fight enemies on both the western and eastern fronts during World War I, which put a significant strain on its military resources and strategy.

Chapter 26

World War I: Key Terms and Concepts

The First World War

• Timeframe: 1914-1918

• Description: A global conflict centered in Europe, involving many of the world's great powers. It was characterized by trench warfare, massive casualties, and significant political changes.

United States Entry into War

• Date: April 6, 1917

• Reason: The U.S. entered World War I due to multiple factors, including unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the Zimmermann Telegram, which proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the U.S.

U.S. Profits from the War

• Concept: The U.S. economy saw significant economic benefits during the war through the sale of arms and supplies to Allied nations, which led to increased industrial production and economic growth.

Role of Industrial Labor

• Concept: Industrial labor was crucial during the war for producing weapons, ammunition, and other war supplies. The war effort led to increased employment opportunities, including for women and minorities, in factories and production facilities.

Soviet

• Definition: A political council or assembly in the former Soviet Union, often associated with the government structures of the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Soviet state.

Lenin

• Full Name: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870-1924)

• Role: Leader of the Bolshevik Party and key figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. He established the Soviet state and served as its leader until his death.

The Balfour Declaration of 1917

• Date: November 2, 1917

• Content: A statement by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour expressing support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, which was then under Ottoman rule.

Palestine

• Region: A territory in the Middle East that became a focal point of international interest and conflict following World War I, particularly regarding Jewish and Arab nationalist aspirations.

Zionism

• Concept: A political and cultural movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. It gained significant momentum during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Tsar Nicholas II

• Lifespan: 1868-1918

• Role: The last Emperor of Russia, whose reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire. He was executed by Bolsheviks following the Russian Revolution.

Woodrow Wilson

• Lifespan: 1856-1924

• Role: The 28th President of the United States, who led the country through World War I and proposed the Fourteen Points as a basis for peace negotiations.

Sixteen Points

• Concept: Originally proposed as the Fourteen Points, Woodrow Wilson's plan for a just and lasting peace after World War I. The points included ideas for self-determination, free trade, and the creation of the League of Nations.

Treaty of Versailles

• Date: Signed on June 28, 1919

• Content: The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. It also established the League of Nations and redrew national boundaries.

League of Nations

• Concept: An international organization established after World War I to promote peace and cooperation among countries. It was a precursor to the United Nations but struggled to prevent future conflicts.

Austria-Hungary and Serbian Nationalism

• Concept: The desire for independence and national unity among ethnic Serbs, particularly in the context of Austria-Hungary's control over Slavic regions, contributed to the tensions leading up to World War I.

Total War

• Concept: A type of warfare where the entire resources and population of a country are mobilized towards the war effort, including economic, industrial, and civilian resources.

The Central Powers

• Countries: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. These nations were opposed by the Allied Powers during World War I.

The Triple Entente Included

• Countries: France, Russia, and Great Britain. This alliance was formed in response to the growing power of the Central Powers and played a major role in the war.

Reasons for the Outbreak of World War I

• Factors: Complex interplay of nationalism, militarism, imperialism, and alliance systems. Specific triggers included the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, rising tensions among European powers, and entangled alliances.

Military Mobilization

• Concept: The process of preparing and organizing a country’s armed forces for war. This included drafting soldiers, mobilizing resources, and planning military strategies.

The Schlieffen Plan

• Concept: Germany’s military strategy designed to quickly defeat France in the west and then redirect forces to fight Russia in the east. The plan aimed to avoid a prolonged two-front war but ultimately failed.

Two-Front War for Germany

• Concept: Germany’s struggle to fight enemies on both the western and eastern fronts during World War I, which put a significant strain on its military resources and strategy.

Chapter 27

Here’s a study guide covering key terms related to World War II, focusing on agreements, military strategies, and significant events:

Key Terms in World War II

Germany's Non-Aggression Pact

• Full Name: German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

• Date: August 23, 1939

• Description: An agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union in which both countries pledged not to attack each other or support any third party that might attack the other. This pact was crucial in the lead-up to World War II as it allowed Germany to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention.

"Appeasement"

• Concept: A diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding conflict by making concessions to an aggressive power. It is most commonly associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's policy towards Adolf Hitler’s expansionist demands in the 1930s.

Luftwaffe

• Definition: The aerial warfare branch of the German military during World War II. It was responsible for the strategic bombing campaign against Allied targets and played a key role in the Battle of Britain.

Nazi Death Camps

• Definition: Facilities established by the Nazi regime for the systematic extermination of Jews and other groups deemed undesirable. The most infamous death camps include Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor. These camps were central to the Holocaust, resulting in the murder of six million Jews.

The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

• Full Name: See "Germany's Non-Aggression Pact" above. This refers to the same agreement that was a key diplomatic maneuver allowing Germany to avoid a two-front war.

The Second World War Began With…

• Event: The invasion of Poland by Germany on September 1, 1939. This act of aggression prompted Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.

Vichy

• Full Name: Vichy France

• Description: The government of unoccupied France after the country’s defeat by Germany in 1940. It was led by Marshal Philippe Pétain and collaborated with the Nazi regime. The Vichy government was known for its authoritarian policies and collaboration with Nazi Germany.

German Invasion of Soviet Territory

• Operation: Operation Barbarossa

• Date: June 22, 1941

• Description: The code name for the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It was the largest military operation in history, marking a significant escalation in World War II and leading to intense and brutal fighting on the Eastern Front.

Chapter 28

Key Terms from the Cold War and Post-Colonial Era

Hungary (1956)

• Event: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956

• Description: A nationwide revolt against the Soviet-imposed policies of the People's Republic of Hungary and the government of Mátyás Rákosi. The revolution was suppressed by Soviet military intervention, but it was a significant moment in Cold War history, highlighting the tensions between Soviet control and the desire for greater autonomy in Eastern Europe.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• Date: October 1962

• Description: A 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. It is considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. The crisis ended with a negotiated settlement where the USSR agreed to withdraw missiles from Cuba in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba and secretly agreeing to remove missiles from Turkey.

China and Communism 1949

• Event: The Chinese Revolution

• Description: In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, succeeded in establishing the People's Republic of China, marking a major victory for communism in Asia and significantly impacting Cold War geopolitics.

NATO

• Full Name: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• Date Founded: April 4, 1949

• Description: A military alliance formed between the United States, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union and its allies.

Division of Germany

• Description: After World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. This division eventually led to the creation of two separate states: West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic).

Warsaw Pact

• Full Name: Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance

• Date Founded: May 14, 1955

• Description: A military alliance of communist nations in Eastern Europe led by the Soviet Union. It was established in response to NATO and included countries such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria.

Eisenhower

• Full Name: Dwight D. Eisenhower

• Role: 34th President of the United States (1953-1961)

• Notable Policies: Known for his role in the early Cold War, his administration focused on containing communism through various policies, including the Eisenhower Doctrine, which aimed to provide U.S. economic and military assistance to countries in the Middle East threatened by communism.

Truman's Containment Theory of Communism

• Concept: The policy articulated by President Harry S. Truman to prevent the spread of communism beyond its existing borders. This theory became the foundation of U.S. Cold War strategy, leading to various political, economic, and military interventions globally.

British Partition of India

• Date: August 15, 1947

• Description: The division of British India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. This partition was accompanied by significant communal violence and mass migrations, shaping the political landscape of South Asia.

Brezhnev Doctrine

• Full Name: Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty

• Concept: A policy declared by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in 1968, asserting that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any socialist country if it was deemed to be threatened by internal or external forces. It justified the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring.

Marshall Plan

• Full Name: European Recovery Program

• Date: Announced June 5, 1947

• Description: A U.S. program providing economic aid to Western European countries to help rebuild their economies after World War II and prevent the spread of communism.

The Truman Doctrine

• Date: Announced March 12, 1947

• Description: A U.S. policy providing economic and military assistance to countries threatened by communism. Initially focused on Greece and Turkey, it set the stage for U.S. intervention in various global conflicts during the Cold War.

De-Stalinization

• Concept: The process of political reform initiated by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to dismantle the repressive policies of Joseph Stalin and promote a more moderate form of socialism. It included efforts to reduce political repression and improve relations with the West.

Khrushchev at the United Nations

• Event: Nikita Khrushchev's visit to the United Nations in 1960

• Description: During his visit, Khrushchev famously pounded his shoe on the desk while denouncing imperialism and defending Soviet policies. This dramatic gesture was a symbol of Cold War tensions and Soviet defiance.

Chapter 29

Key Terms and Concepts

OPEC Embargo on Oil Sales

• Date: 1973-1974

• Description: An oil embargo imposed by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in response to Western support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War. This led to a significant increase in oil prices and caused economic turmoil in many Western countries.

"Stagflation"

• Concept: An economic condition characterized by stagnant economic growth, high unemployment, and high inflation. It became a major issue in the 1970s, challenging traditional economic theories that inflation and unemployment were mutually exclusive.

Margaret Thatcher

• Lifespan: 1925-2013

• Role: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990. Known for her conservative policies, privatization of state-owned industries, and strong stance against the Soviet Union. Her leadership style and policies are often associated with "Thatcherism."

New Conservatism

• Concept: A political movement emphasizing traditional values, free-market policies, and a strong national defense. It gained prominence in the late 1970s and 1980s, influencing both U.S. and British politics.

Ronald Reagan

• Lifespan: 1911-2004

• Role: 40th President of the United States (1981-1989). Reagan’s presidency is noted for his conservative economic policies, known as "Reaganomics," the escalation of the Cold War initially, and later efforts to reduce nuclear arsenals with the Soviet Union.

The Euro

• Date Introduced: January 1, 1999 (as an electronic currency), January 1, 2002 (as physical currency)

• Description: The single currency adopted by many European Union (EU) member states. It was introduced to facilitate economic integration and trade within the Eurozone.

Détente

• Concept: The relaxation of strained relations, particularly between the United States and the Soviet Union, during the Cold War. It involved negotiations on arms control and improved diplomatic relations, most prominently in the 1970s.

Afghanistan

• Event: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

• Date: December 24, 1979

• Description: The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan to support the communist government against insurgent groups. The invasion led to a prolonged conflict and was a significant factor in the deterioration of U.S.-Soviet relations.

President Carter

• Full Name: Jimmy Carter

• Role: 39th President of the United States (1977-1981)

• Notable Events: Known for his emphasis on human rights, his handling of the Iran Hostage Crisis, and his efforts to broker peace in the Middle East with the Camp David Accords.

First Nations to Jettison Communist Rule in Europe

• Countries: Poland and Hungary

• Description: In 1989, Poland and Hungary were among the first Eastern Bloc countries to move away from communist rule, leading to democratic reforms and the eventual collapse of other communist governments in Eastern Europe.

"Velvet Revolution"

• Date: November-December 1989

• Description: A peaceful revolution in Czechoslovakia that led to the end of communist rule and the establishment of a parliamentary republic. The term reflects the non-violent nature of the transition.

"Ethnic Cleansing"

• Concept: The systematic removal or extermination of ethnic or religious groups from a region, often through violence or forced displacement. It became widely known during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s.

The Former State of Yugoslavia

• Description: A socialist federation in Southeast Europe that disintegrated in the 1990s into several independent countries due to ethnic conflicts and wars. The breakup led to the creation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia.