Child development 3

1. Basic Level : This refers to the middle level in a category hierarchy, which is usually the most informative and commonly used level. For example, "dog" is a basic-level category, whereas "animal" is superordinate and "poodle" is subordinate.

2. Category Hierarchy : This is a system of grouping things based on levels of specificity. It typically includes three levels: superordinate (general), basic (intermediate), and subordinate (specific).

3. Naïve Psychology : This is a commonsense understanding of other people and oneself, including concepts such as desires, beliefs, and actions.

4. Numerical Equality : This is the concept that all sets of N objects have something in common, which is their quantity. For example, the understanding that two apples and two oranges both share the property of "twoness."

5. Concepts : These are general ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way.

6. Egocentric Spatial Representations : These are spatial representations that are centered on one's own body, rather than on the external environment.

7. Object Substitution : This is a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself, such as using a banana as a phone.

8. Essentialism : This is the belief that certain categories, such as animals or plants, have an underlying essence that makes them what they are.

9. Perceptual Categorization : This is the grouping together of objects that have similar appearances. For example, recognizing all red objects as belonging to a single category.

10. False-Belief Problems : These are tasks that test a child's understanding that other people can hold beliefs that are different from reality and from the child's own beliefs.

11. Pretend Play : This is a type of play in which children use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other objects, actions, or ideas, as in a game of "house" where a child pretends to be a parent.

12. Sociodramatic Play : This is a type of pretend play that involves acting out various roles and themes in stories that children create.

13. Subordinate Level : This is the most specific level within a category hierarchy. For example, "poodle" is a subordinate category within the basic category "dog."

14. Superordinate Level : This is the most general level within a category hierarchy. For example, "animal" is a superordinate category that includes the basic category "dog."

15. Theory of Mind : This is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own.

16. Theory of Mind Module (TOMM) (p. 246): This is a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings.

Achievement Motivation: This refers to the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with high achievement motivation will set challenging goals and strive to accomplish them, often deriving satisfaction from their achievements.

2. Chronosystem : Part of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the chronosystem encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child's environments. It includes life transitions and historical events that affect development.

3. Anal Stage : According to Freud's psychosexual stages of development, the anal stage occurs from about 18 months to 3 years of age. During this stage, a child's pleasure focuses on controlling bladder and bowel movements.

4. Ego : In Freudian theory, the ego is the part of the personality that mediates between the desires of the id and the realities of the external world. It operates on the reality principle, seeking to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways.

5. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) : ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development.

6. Entity Theory : This theory suggests that people view their abilities as fixed traits. Individuals who subscribe to this theory believe that intelligence and talents are static and cannot be changed.

7. Entity/Helpless Orientation : This orientation is associated with the belief that abilities are fixed. When faced with challenges, individuals with this mindset may feel helpless and give up easily because they believe they cannot improve.

8. Behavior Modification : This involves the use of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior. It includes strategies such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment to increase or decrease specific behaviors.

9. Erogenous Zones : In Freudian theory, erogenous zones are areas of the body that are particularly sensitive to stimulation and can produce pleasure. Different stages of psychosexual development focus on different erogenous zones.

10. Ethology : Ethology is the study of animal behavior in natural contexts. It emphasizes the role of innate behaviors and the evolutionary basis for behavior.

11. Exosystem : Part of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the exosystem includes broader social systems that do not directly involve the individual but still affect their development, such as a parent's workplace.

12. Genital Stage: This is the final stage in Freud's psychosexual development, starting from puberty onwards. During this stage, sexual interests mature, and individuals seek to form intimate relationships with others.

13. Hostile Attributional Bias : This bias involves the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.

14. Id : In Freudian theory, the id is the part of the personality that contains our primal instincts and drives. It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of its desires.

1. Imprinting: A form of learning in which a young animal acquires certain behavioral characteristics from its parent or another object, typically occurring during a critical period shortly after birth.

2. Incremental Theory: The belief that intelligence or ability can be developed over time through effort and learning.

3. Incremental/Mastery Orientation : A mindset where individuals focus on learning, growth, and mastering new skills rather than just performing well.

4. Intermittent Reinforcement : A conditioning schedule in which a reward or punishment is not administered every time the desired response occurs, leading to more robust learning.

5. Latency Period : In Freud's psychosexual stages, this is the period between the phallic stage and puberty, where sexual interests are less pronounced and children focus on other activities.

6. Macrosystem (p. 338): Part of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, it includes the broader cultural values, laws, and customs that influence an individual's development.

7. Mesosystem : Also from Bronfenbrenner's theory, it involves the interconnections between the microsystems, such as the relationship between family experiences and school experiences.

8. Microsystem : The immediate environment in which a person lives, including family, school, peers, and neighborhood.

9. Oral Stage : In Freudian theory, the first stage of psychosexual development, occurring from birth to about 18 months, where the mouth is the primary source of pleasure.

10. Parental-Investment Theory : A theory in evolutionary biology that suggests parents are biologically predisposed to invest in their offspring to ensure the survival and reproduction of their genes.

11. Phallic Stage : Another of Freud's stages, occurring from about 3 to 6 years old, where the focus of pleasure is on the genitalia.

12. Reciprocal Determinism : A concept from Bandura's social learning theory, suggesting that a person's behavior is influenced by personal factors and the social environment, which in turn influence each other.

13. Role Taking : The process of assuming the perspective of another person to understand their thoughts, feelings, and actions.

14. Self-Socialization : The process by which children actively shape their own development through their choices, activities, and interpretations of the world.

15. Superego : In Freudian theory, the part of the personality that represents internalized moral standards and ideals, acting as a conscience.

16. Vicarious Reinforcement : Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person’s behavior.