Development of Slavery in the British North American Colonies (Vocabulary flashcards)

Study context and exam prep (from the instructor)

Two weeks until the first exam; open‑notes or not for the exam is discussed; the first exam will not be open‑notes and will include multiple choice questions; the instructor will not provide a separate review session and will pull questions from students’ notes rather than obscure textbook pages.
Emphasis: studying is the main responsibility outside class; students should translate notes into usable knowledge, not just reread.
Study methods discussed as effective: combine multiple senses (read, write, listen), recite, self‑quiz, and gamify with tools like Quizlet, Quizzes, Kahoot, etc.; explaining material to someone else helps identify gaps in understanding.
On note review and practice: past quizzes can be helpful but are not a complete study guide; new questions will be drawn from the notes.
Practical advice: start studying now, not the night before; plan for two weeks of preparation leading into the exam.
About the course format: there will be some format updates; details on the mix of multiple‑choice and written questions will be shared next week.

Big picture: slavery in the Atlantic world (overview)

Slavery is an ancient institution present in many civilizations (e.g., biblical references, ancient Greeks and Romans).
Slavery existed in Africa prior to European involvement via debt bondage and tribal warfare; enslaved people could be taken as collateral or as a result of intertribal conflict.
Early African slave trade (overland toward the Arabian Peninsula) involved a number of slaves, with women often employed as heralds or for other roles rather than heavy labor.
Portuguese expansion along the coast of Africa introduces a broader Atlantic trade—European efforts lead to a trading post empire (coastal outposts for commerce rather than inland conquest).
Slavery existed as a commodity in Africa before extensive European colonization; the scale of the trade expands dramatically with the Americas.

The Atlantic slave trade before the Americas

Trade dynamics: Indigenous African states/coastal tribes exchange goods with Europeans (finished goods from Europe, raw materials from Africa; ivory and gold along some coasts; slaves along the Gold Coast and in other zones).
Early volume: roughly a thousand slaves per year were transported out of Africa in the early phases of European contact.
The “trading post empire” concept (Portugese) focuses on coastal interaction, not inland governance; inland enslaving is largely carried out by coastal tribes who gain access to European firearms and trade goods.
The role of African intermediaries: coastal tribes become wealthy through trade with Europeans and increasingly supply slaves by expanding into the interior.
Slavery in Europe/Africa context: Africans sold into slavery often end up in the Arabian Peninsula or other destinations; the European push into the Americas intensifies demand for labor in new worlds.

The Atlantic migration routes and labor demand

The Americas become a labor magnet due to cash crop agriculture (e.g., sugar in the Caribbean and tobacco in Virginia/Southern colonies).
Transatlantic slave trade scales up rapidly in the 15th–16th centuries as colonies establish large-scale cash crops.
Regional destination distribution (illustrative): the majority of enslaved Africans were transported to Brazil (Portuguese colony) for sugar production, which required many workers; a smaller but significant portion went to the Caribbean and Spanish/English colonies in the Americas; a small share—about 3.6\% of the total number of Africans transported—arrived in the territory that would become the United States of America.
Climate and mortality: Brazil’s tropical climate and intense labor on sugar plantations led to high mortality and a need for continual importation (average life expectancy on Brazilian sugar plantations around 23\,\text{years}).
Mortality on the Middle Passage varied but was high; across the early era, ships carried as many enslaved people as possible to maximize profits, with severe crowding, minimal ventilation, and limited sanitary provisions.
It was expensive to transport enslaved people, but the financial incentive was to maximize numbers carried on each voyage; the voyage itself is known as the Middle Passage.
Middle Passage mortality: early estimates around 0.20 (20%) on the voyage, with improvements over time as practices evolved, but still a brutal journey.

Numbers and regional patterns (quick reference)

Total Africans transported to destinations in the Americas: approximately 430{,}000 to the territory that would become the United States (highly concentrated in the future U.S. South).
Total Africans transported to the Caribbean and South America (notably Brazil): vastly larger; Brazil becomes the single largest importer of enslaved Africans with sugar as a heavily labor-intensive crop.
In the North American context, the importation of slaves to the future United States is a relatively small share of the total Atlantic slave trade, but the enslaved population grows domestically via natural increase (births).
Saint-Domingue (Haiti) example: during the height of the slave trade, roughly 860{,}000 enslaved Africans were imported to the colony, with about 480{,}000 alive by the end of the period, illustrating the enormous labor demand and high mortality.
Transatlantic trade shifts: the Dutch initially dominated parts of the African trade and early Atlantic commerce, then the English take over in the later 17th–18th centuries as mercantilist competition intensifies.

Slavery in colonial Virginia: from indentured servitude to race-based slavery

Virginia’s early labor system was built on indentured servitude rather than slavery: English settlers who could not afford passage across the Atlantic often bound themselves to a landowner for a number of years to pay off debt.
Tobacco as Virginia’s cash crop creates a massive demand for labor; the land is abundant, but early settlers lack sufficient workers to cultivate large tobacco harvests.
Indentures: the typical contract length was 5\text{ to }7\,\text{years}; upon completion, “freedom dues” were provided (seed, farming tools, and a rifle) to help begin a new life as independent farmers.
Passage and debt model: ship captains would lend passage to workers and then transfer the debt to farmers who would contractually hire the laborers; this system made foreign labor accessible to Virginia planters.
Mortality among indentured servants was high; estimates suggest roughly 50\% of indentured servants died before the end of their terms.
The 1619 milestone: year of the first African arrivals in Virginia; the same year that the House of Burgesses (the first representative assembly in the English colonies) is established, marking an early form of self‑government in the New World.
Africans who arrived in 1619 were initially treated as indentured servants rather than lifelong slaves; several of them and their descendants would eventually become free and own land and servants, indicating an initial non‑racial, contract‑based system.
By 1700, Virginia has developed a slave society in which the economy is built on slave labor; however, the path there includes significant continuity with indentured servitude in the preceding decades.
1619 and early Black presence: there is a free Black population in urban areas; not all Africans immediately become enslaved; some become free and even own indentured servants.

The Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) and its aftermath

Background: frontiersmen in the backcountry (west of the settled tidewater) feel excluded from political power and inadequate colonial protection; backcountry farmers have been paying taxes but seeing few public improvements (roads, bridges, forts).
Governor William Berkeley’s leadership: long tenure (appointed by aristocrats who own large plantations); he controls the Governor’s Council (upper house) and postpones elections to maintain elite control.
Rising tension: Indians attacks on backcountry farms prompt calls for military action; Bacon and other backcountry leaders petition and attempt to lead a private expedition; Berkeley denies authorization.
Bacon takes matters into his own hands: leads an expedition to attack native villages; sets fire to settlements; marches on Jamestown, forcing Berkeley to flee.
Bacon falls ill and dies (swamp fever, likely dysentery); the rebellion collapses soon after, and Berkeley reasserts control.
Aftermath and significance:
- The rebellion exposes the vulnerability of colonial elites to popular uprisings and prompts elites to respond with reforms (e.g., roads, bridges, and fortifications in the backcountry; broadening the tax base).
- The revolt accelerates a shift away from indentured servitude among poor whites towards a racialized system that increasingly defines legal status by skin color.
- The government’s response and the social mentality after Bacon’s Rebellion contribute to a divide between poor whites and enslaved Africans, reinforcing a system in which people are categorized by race and labor is organized accordingly.
- The revolt highlights the burgeoning fear among elites of a unified underclass that might threaten property and power; the state begins to rely more on African slavery as a more controllable and permanent labor force.
Long-term consequence: after the rebellion, reforms reduce the appeal of indentures and push planters toward importing enslaved Africans on a larger scale; racial lines begin to harden into law and custom, making slavery a lifelong status tied to color rather than a temporary contract.

Shifts in labor systems: economics, life expectancy, and race

Economic shifts in England: as English conditions improve, fewer people sign up for indentured servitude; demand for land and workers remains, but supply from England declines.
The English colonizers increasingly corner the African slave trade, driving importation of enslaved Africans to the colonies and intensifying the use of slave labor.
Cost and life expectancy: indentured servants had a finite term; slaves were enslaved for life. As life expectancy in the Americas improved in the late 17th century, the economics of lifelong enslavement became more attractive to planters who could invest in long‑term labor without the risk of a short contract ending unexpectedly.
The financial rationale: slaves were more expensive upfront but offered labor for the remainder of their lives, making them a stable long‑term investment as opposed to indentured servants who worked for a limited term.
Racism as a factor: racism emerges as a structural justification for slavery, reinforcing social hierarchies even as economic calculations explain the shift; racism and profit interact to create a system where slaves are defined by skin color.
By 1676 and after, slave labor becomes increasingly central to the Virginia economy, and the transition from indentured servitude to race-based slavery accelerates in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

Slavery across the colonies: demographic patterns and culture

By 1776, all thirteen colonies have enslaved populations; slaveholding and slavery exist in every region, though the extent and role vary by region.
Northern colonies (New England): slavery exists but is relatively small in scale; roughly 2\% of the population in many northern areas; slaves largely serve as status symbols and on some farms rather than as a core labor force.
Middle colonies: intermediate position, with slave labor present on some large farms and some slaves held as status symbols; around 10\% of the population enslaved in the Middle Colonies.
Southern colonies: slave populations are much larger and form the core of the plantation economy; in some areas like South Carolina, slave populations approach 50\% of the population due to Barbadian plantation influence; Georgia and North Carolina also see rising slave populations as the colony develops.
The Virginia pattern: Virginia’s slave system develops distinctly; by 1700–1800, Virginia becomes representative of a slave society in the South with a high dependence on enslaved labor, particularly in tobacco production.
The Barbadian influence: many Southern planters came from Barbados to South Carolina and onward; thus, slave society characteristics in the South borrow from Caribbean plantation models.
Northern slavery and the economics of slavery: slavery in the North often served as a status symbol and domestic servitude rather than a major economic system; slavery’s economic role was less central than in the South.

Natural increase and the emergence of a distinct African American culture

A notable feature of slavery in what would become the United States is the slave population’s ability to reproduce itself: enslaved people form families, and children inherit the status of slavery from their parents.
In tropical sugar regions of the Caribbean and South America, plantations relied on importing large numbers of enslaved Africans and had a high mortality rate; the dream of lifetime labor is less feasible there due to health and climate, leading to a strong emphasis on male labor and a lack of balanced gender ratios.
In contrast, in the United States, the combination of enslaved population growth and natural increase helps slavery become self-sustaining without ongoing massive importation after a large importation spike ends (notably after the 1808 prohibition).
The 18th‑century slave communities in the American South cultivate a distinct culture that blends African, Native American, and European influences; in coastal Carolina and elsewhere, new forms of communication and community arise (e.g., language development such as the Gullah culture on the Sea Islands and in coastal Carolina).
Language: Gullah is a distinct creole language that emerges in slave communities along the Atlantic coast; it reflects a mix of African linguistic elements and English with new words arising within the community.
Culture and resistance: enslaved people resist through passive means (feigning illness, working slowly), active sabotage, and revolts; resistance remains a continuous thread throughout the history of slavery in the Americas.
The long arc of slavery includes ongoing attempts to challenge the system politically and socially; resistance remains a central theme in the history of slavery in what would become the United States.

Slavery in the Americas: law, religion, and independence

By the time of the American Revolution (1776), all colonies have slavery; slave laws exist in various forms across the colonies; notably, Massachusetts had slave laws before Virginia, challenging the idea that slavery was strictly a Southern issue.
Slavery’s geography: slavery is not confined to the South; it exists across the colonies, though with regional variation in prevalence and role in the economy.
The 1776 Declaration of Independence and the reality of slaveholding among the founding states highlight the paradox of a new republic founded on liberty while maintaining a large enslaved population.

End of Atlantic slave imports (and what comes after)

The United States officially ends the African slave trade with the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1808 (effective import ban). This marks a major turn in the legal framework surrounding slavery in the United States, though slavery itself continues within the country.
The internal slave population continues to grow through natural increase; the 1860 census shows approximately 4{,}000{,}000 enslaved people in the United States, a result of both the imports before 1808 and the population’s growth over time.
The contrast between the 1808 import ban and the continued expansion of enslaved populations demonstrates the contradictions in early American policy and the persistence of slavery as a labor system and social order.

A note on the broader global context and ethical implications

The Atlantic slave trade involves coercion, brutal transport, and the dehumanization of millions of people; while economic calculations and racism provide explanations for why slavery persisted, ethical considerations demand ongoing critical reflection on the human costs and the enduring legacies of slavery.
The enslaved population creates a distinct cultural synthesis in the Americas, notably the emergence of new languages, music, religious practices, and social networks that survive into modern American culture.
Resistance and abolitionist movements grow out of generations of enslaved people and their descendants, shaping political, legal, and social change well beyond the period discussed here.

Quick reference to key dates and figures (LaTeX notation for numbers)

First Africans in Virginia: 1619
Jamestown’s early representative government (House of Burgesses): 1619
Indenture length: 5 \text{ to } 7\,\text{years}
Life expectancy on Brazilian sugar plantations: 23\,\text{years}
Estimated white male landless/without land by 1676: \frac{1}{4} of white men in Virginia
Mortality on the Middle Passage (early estimates): 0.20 (20\%)
Slaves to the territory that would become the United States (as a share of total Africans transported): 3.6\%
Slaves imported to Saint Domingue (Haiti) during peak period: 860{,}000; alive at end: 480{,}000
Slaves in the United States by 1860: 4{,}000{,}000
Import ban on the African slave trade in the United States: 1808
Proportion of enslaved populations by region (approximate): New England 2\%\,, Middle Colonies 10\%\,, Southern Colonies approaching up to 50\%\, in parts like South Carolina

Reflection prompts (for exam prep)

Why did indentured servitude dominate early labor in Virginia, and what factors led to the shift toward lifelong slavery for Africans?
How did Bacon’s Rebellion contribute to the transition from race-neutral indentured servitude to a racially codified system of slavery?
What roles did climate, disease, and plantation crop type play in the transatlantic slave trade’s demographic patterns (e.g., Brazil vs. the future United States)?
How did slave culture in the American South synthesize African, Native American, and European elements (e.g., Gullah), and what does this say about identity formation under coercive systems?
In what ways did resistance to slavery manifest, and how did elites respond to quell such resistance (including infrastructure and policy changes)?