Limited Government: A political system where the powers of the government are restricted by law, usually in a written constitution, to protect individual freedoms and rights.

Natural Rights: Fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, often referenced as "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," requiring protection by the government.

Popular Sovereignty: The principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, typically expressed through voting.

Republicanism: A political ideology centered on the belief that citizens can determine their government, primarily through elected representatives and laws that prioritize the common good.

Social Contract: A theory that posits individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some freedoms to authority in exchange for protection of remaining rights.

Participatory Democracy: A model of democracy in which citizens have the direct power to affect legislation and policies, encouraging widespread engagement in the political process.

Pluralist Democracy: A form of democracy that recognizes the diversity of interests and views in society and emphasizes the role of group participation in political decision-making.

Elite Democracy: A theory of democracy where a small number of elites hold power and influence, often prioritizing their interests over the majority's.

Factions: Groups of individuals, often united by a common interest; in a democratic context, factions can lead to political strife and influence governance.

Federalist: Supporters of the proposed Constitution during the debate over its ratification, advocating for a strong national government.

Anti-Federalist: Opponents of the proposed Constitution, arguing for states' rights and fearing that a strong national government would threaten individual liberties.

Centralized Government: A government structure where most or all authority is held by a single central authority, limiting the powers of local governments.

Decentralized Government: A distribution of power away from a central authority to local or regional authorities, promoting local governance.

Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, establishing a league of friendship among the states but ultimately failing due to the weak central government.

Shay’s Rebellion: An uprising in 1786 led by Daniel Shays, protesting economic injustices and the inability of the government to address issues faced by veterans and farmers.

Ratification: The official approval of the Constitution or an amendment, requiring consent by a specified number of states.

Great Compromise: An agreement during the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature, balancing the interests of both large and small states.

3/5th Compromise: An agreement to count three out of every five enslaved individuals for purposes of representation and taxation, reflecting the contentious issue of slavery in the states.

Compromise on the Importation of Slavery: An agreement that allowed the continuing importation of enslaved individuals until 1808, reflecting tensions around slavery in the new nation.

Amendment Process: The formal procedure through which the Constitution can be changed, requiring significant support from both Congress and the states.

Checks and Balances: A system in the Constitution that ensures no single branch of government becomes too powerful, providing each branch with mechanisms to limit the others.

Separation of Powers: The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

Impeachment: A constitutional process through which a sitting president or other federal officials can be removed from office for misconduct.

Exclusive Powers: Powers specifically granted to one level of government, such as the federal government having the exclusive right to declare war.

Concurrent Powers: Powers shared by both federal and state governments, such as the power to tax.

Grants: Funds given by the federal government to state governments for specific purposes.

Incentives: Benefits offered by the government to encourage specific actions or behaviors among individuals or organizations.

Aid: Assistance, often financial, provided by one level of government to another, or from the government to individuals or organizations.

Revenue Sharing: A policy where federal funds are distributed to state and local governments to support their budgets.

Mandates: Requirements imposed by the federal government on state and local governments to comply with certain laws or regulations.

Categorical Grants: Federal funds given to state or local governments for specific programs or projects.

Block Grants: Federal funds given to states for broad purposes, allowing more discretion in how the funds are used.

10th Amendment: A constitutional provision stating that powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are reserved for the states or the people.

14th Amendment: A constitutional amendment granting citizenship rights and equal protection under the law, often cited in civil rights cases.

Commerce Clause: A provision in the Constitution granting Congress the power to regulate commerce among states and with foreign nations.

Necessary and Proper Clause: A clause allowing Congress to pass any laws deemed necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers.

Enumerated Powers: Explicitly listed powers granted to Congress in the Constitution.

Implied Powers: Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but inferred from the enumerated powers, allowing for flexibility in governance.

McCulloch v. Maryland: A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of federal supremacy over state laws and confirmed implied powers of Congress.

United States v. Lopez: A Supreme Court case that curtailed Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, emphasizing limits on federal authority.

State Sovereignty: The concept that states have the right to govern themselves independent of the federal government, often highlighted in arguments against federal mandates.