Social_Psychology-8

Social Psychology

Definition

• Social psychology is the study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others.

• This field explores how we affect each other in social settings, whether through explicit interactions or just by observing others' behaviors.

Social Influence

• Social influence involves exercising social power to change the attitudes or behaviors of others in a particular direction.

• Social power: the force available to change others' attitudes or behavior.

• Types of social influence:

  • Conformity

  • Compliance

  • Obedience

Understanding Conformity

Definition of Conformity

• Conformity is the phenomenon whereby an individual alters his or her beliefs, attitudes, or behavior to align with those of a majority.

• This raises the question: Are people acting independently, or are these acts instances of conforming to different reference group standards?

Everyday Examples

• Aspects of life affected include clothing choices, food preferences, and music tastes.

• Social standards from friends, family, and larger cultures influence these areas.

Normative Influence

• Normative influence is about being liked and accepted.

• Solomon Asch's findings: group acceptance is prioritized over being correct.

Asch Conformity Studies

• Many participants conformed to group judgment even when it contradicted their senses.

Key Factors for Normative Influence

• People conform as they want to fit in, even when acknowledging it's incorrect.

• Leads to public acceptance.

Consequences of Non-Conformity

• Research indicates that non-conformers risk social rejection and ostracism.

• Instances of dissent can lead to verbal attacks and social exclusion.

Ostracism

• Rejection and exclusion serve as forms of social control.

• The emotional pain from social rejection activates brain regions similar to those affected by physical pain.

• Social exclusion signals potential survival threats and disrupts logical thought.

Informational Influence

• This type of influence stems from the desire to be correct.

• Situations prompting informational influence include:

  • Ambiguous environments

  • Crisis situations

• Leads to private acceptance.

Pluralistic Ignorance

• Defined as "No one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes."

• Examples include misunderstandings about social norms, such as standing ovations or binge drinking assumptions.

• Contributes to the bystander effect, showcasing that individuals may think others know more than they do.

Chameleon Effect

• The tendency to unconsciously mimic nonverbal behaviors of others with whom one is interacting.

• This effect extends to shifting attitudes based on perceived opinions of others, particularly in romantic relationships.

Factors Influencing Conformity

• Situational factors that increase conformity:

  • Group size

  • Group cohesiveness

  • Social support

  • Others' gestures

  • Cues activating automatic conformity (e.g., chameleon effect)

Techniques of Social Influence

Principles of Influence

1. Commitment and Consistency

   • Techniques include foot-in-the-door and low-ball techniques.

2. Reciprocation

   • Techniques involve door-in-the-face and that’s-not-all techniques.

3. Scarcity

   • Techniques include limited-number and fast-approaching-deadline techniques.

4. Capturing and Disrupting Attention

   • Techniques like pique and disrupt-then-reframe.

Compliance

Definition

• Compliance refers to the tendency to agree to do things requested by others.

Factors Increasing Compliance

• Influences include being in a good mood, failing to pay attention, and giving a reason for the request.

• Research by Ellen Langer demonstrated that compliance increases with any reason, even if trivial.

Compliance Strategies

Foot-in-the-Door Effect

• People who agree to small requests are more likely to comply with larger ones.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

• Initiate with an inflated request, then retreat to a smaller, more reasonable one, increasing compliance likelihood.

Lowballing Technique

• Begins with a low-cost request and later reveals hidden costs, typically binds the individual to the commitment.

Bait-and-Switch Technique

• Draws individuals in with an attractive offer that isn't available, switching to a less attractive one.

Labeling Technique

• Involves assigning a label that aligns with a request, leveraging self-fulfilling prophecies and self-concept.

Defenses Against Commitment and Consistency Techniques

• Reflect on commitments: “If I knew what I know now, would I make this commitment?”

Techniques Based on Reciprocation

• Reciprocation is a powerful principle driving social behavior; people feel guilty if they can't repay favors.

That’s-Not-All Technique

• Adds bonuses or discounts to initial inflated requests.

Defenses Against Techniques Based on Reciprocation

• Accept favors in good faith but be ready to categorize them as tricks if necessary.

Techniques Based on Scarcity

• Scarcity principle: Rare opportunities are deemed more valuable.

• Techniques include limited-number and fast-approaching-deadline methods.

Defenses against Scarcity Techniques

• When faced with scarcity cues, stop and evaluate the true motivation behind wanting an item.

Factors Influencing Compliance

1. Positive Mood

   • Engaging with requests in a pleasant state leads to less critical analysis.

2. Norm of Reciprocity

   • Engagement via gifts or samples in sales strategies.

3. Reasons, even trivial ones, prompt increases in compliance.

Commitment and Consistency Principle

• The principle creates a sense of obligation to behave consistently with commitments.

• Cognitive dissonance may occur at a personal level.

• Inconsistent behaviors might lead to social rejection.

• If tricked into making commitments, question the basis of consistency obligations.

Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

• Fundamental differences:

  • Conformity: changing behavior or beliefs to fit in with the group.

  • Compliance: agreeing to do something due to requests with no strong authority.

  • Obedience: following orders from authoritative figures, often with consequences for disobedience.

Social Psychology in the U.S.

• After WWII, research focused on societal issues and historical events.

• Influential figures include Theodor Adorno and Stanley Milgram, focusing on understanding authoritarianism.

The Dynamics of Obedience

Definition of Obedience

• Obedience involves following orders from someone in authority.

Milgram's Experiments

• Demonstrate ordinary people can perform horrific acts when commanded by authority figures.

• Obedience is affected by perceived distance from authority.

Milgram Obedience Study Overview

• Participants believed they were evaluating memory; under instructions, they administered electric shocks to another participant (a confederate) for wrong answers, escalating the shocks based on authority guidance.

• Showcases conditioning to obey, even morally questionable orders.

Deception in Research

Definition

• Refers to misleading participants about the study’s true nature to ensure the validity of findings.

Ethical Conditions for Deception

1. No alternative methods are viable.

2. Significant contributions to scientific knowledge.

3. No significant harm or distress is expected from the deception.

4. Deception is explained after participation.