AP Psychology 2.3-2.4

  • Memory: The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

  • Recall: A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

  • Recognition: A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

  • Relearning: A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

  • Encoding: The process of getting information into the memory system, for example, by extracting meaning.

  • Storage: The process of retaining encoded information over time.

  • Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory storage.

  • Parallel processing: The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

  • Sensory memory: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

  • Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is either stored or forgotten.

  • Long-term memory: The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.

  • Working memory: A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visuospatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

  • Central executive: The part of working memory that focuses attention and orchestrates information, managing the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop.

  • Phonological loop: A component of working memory that stores and rehearses speech-based information.

  • Visuospatial sketchpad: A component of working memory that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.

  • Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, which can occur in adult brains and is linked to learning and memory.

  • Long term potentiation (LTP): An increase in a synapse's firing potential after rapid, brief stimulation, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

  • Explicit memory: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory).

  • Effortful processing: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

  • Automatic processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

  • Implicit memory: Retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory).

  • Iconic memory: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

  • Echoic memory: A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

  • Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

  • Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

  • Spacing Effect: The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

  • Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (also known as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning).

  • Shallow Processing: Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

  • Deep processing: Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.