personality pt 2

Social Cognitive Perspective - A theory that applies learning principles (conditioning and observation) and cognition to understanding personality.

Albert Bandura - Psychologist associated with social cognitive theory.

Observational Learning - Learning by observing others.

Reciprocal Determinism - The idea that personality and environmental factors influence each other.

Self-Efficacy - A person’s belief in their ability to perform behaviors necessary to accomplish tasks.

Collective Efficacy - The belief that a group can achieve its goals through collaborative effort.

Locus of Control - The degree to which individuals believe they control their outcomes.

Internal Locus of Control - The belief that one’s actions determine their fate.

External Locus of Control - The belief that external forces, such as luck, control one's fate.

Learned Helplessness - A sense of powerlessness arising from repeated negative experiences.

Attributional Style - How individuals explain positive or negative events.

Situational Factors - The idea that behavior is influenced by the specific attributes of a situation.

Competencies - Intellectual and social abilities that influence behavior.

Cognitive Strategies - Different perceptions of events that affect behavior.

Expectancies - Predictions about the outcomes of different behaviors.

Subjective Values - Personal values assigned to potential outcomes.

Self-Regulatory Systems - Internal rules and standards that guide behavior.

Biological Perspective - The theory that genes, chemicals, and body types influence personality.

Temperament - A person’s emotional style and typical way of interacting with the world.

Hippocrates’ Four Humors Theory - The belief that personality is influenced by bodily fluids (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm).

William Sheldon’s Somatotype Theory - A theory linking body types to personality traits:

Endomorphs (fat) - Friendly and outgoing.

Mesomorphs (muscular) - Aggressive and bold.

Ectomorphs (thin) - Shy and secretive.

• Abraham Maslow – Emphasized the goal of self-actualization.

• Carl Rogers – Emphasized unconditional positive regard—acceptance and love from others independent of behavior.

• George Kelly – Developed the concept of personal constructs, which we use to judge and predict others' behavior.

• Julian Rotter – Introduced locus of control, the degree to which we believe outcomes depend on our own actions versus external forces.

• Gordon Allport – Proposed three levels of traits:

  • Cardinal traits – Defining characteristics that dominate behavior.

  • Central traits – General characteristics shaping most behaviors.

  • Secondary traits – Traits that appear in specific situations.

• Hans Eysenck – Identified three genetically influenced dimensions of personality using factor analysis:

  • Extroversion – Measures sociability and external focus.

  • Neuroticism – Measures emotional stability.

  • Psychoticism – Measures tough-mindedness versus empathy.

• Raymond Cattell – Studied surface traits and identified 16 source traits underlying personality, leading to the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

• Sigmund Freud – Proposed a psychosexual theory of personality development with five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

• Anal Stage (1 – 3 Years) – A stage where pleasure is focused on bowel and bladder control, with toilet training being a key experience. Fixation can result in an anal-retentive personality (organized, controlling) or an anal-expulsive personality (messy, careless).

  Phallic Stage (3 – 6 Years) – A stage where pleasure is focused on the genitals (not in a sexual way). Children develop gender identity through identification with the same-sex parent. This stage includes the Oedipus Complex (boys) and Electra Complex (girls). Fixation can lead to vanity, narcissism, or relationship difficulties.

  Oedipus Complex – A theory that boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and view their fathers as rivals, later resolving this by identifying with their fathers.

  Electra Complex – A theory that girls develop unconscious desires for their fathers and resentment toward their mothers, later resolving this by identifying with their mothers.

  Latency Stage (6 – 12 Years) – A stage where sexual feelings are dormant, and children focus on social development, friendships, and learning. Generally, no fixations occur in this stage.

  Genital Stage (Puberty – Adulthood) – A stage where sexual desires mature, and individuals seek romantic relationships. Successful completion leads to well-balanced relationships, while unresolved fixations from earlier stages may cause difficulties with intimacy.

  Carl Jung – Proposed the collective unconscious, which includes archetypes (universal symbols and concepts shared by all humans).

  Alfred Adler – Introduced the inferiority complex, suggesting that people are motivated by the fear of failure and the desire for superiority.

  Karen Horney – Studied neurotic personality and argued that cultural factors, rather than biological differences, shape personality.

  Social Cognitive Theories

  Walter Mischel – Developed the Person-Situation Debate, questioning whether personality is more influenced by traits or situations.

  Five Person Variables – Competencies, cognitive strategies, expectancies, subjective values, and self-regulatory systems, which influence behavior.

  Delayed Gratification – The ability to resist immediate rewards for a larger reward in the future (e.g., Marshmallow Experiment).