Social Cognitive Perspective - A theory that applies learning principles (conditioning and observation) and cognition to understanding personality.
Albert Bandura - Psychologist associated with social cognitive theory.
Observational Learning - Learning by observing others.
Reciprocal Determinism - The idea that personality and environmental factors influence each other.
Self-Efficacy - A person’s belief in their ability to perform behaviors necessary to accomplish tasks.
Collective Efficacy - The belief that a group can achieve its goals through collaborative effort.
Locus of Control - The degree to which individuals believe they control their outcomes.
Internal Locus of Control - The belief that one’s actions determine their fate.
External Locus of Control - The belief that external forces, such as luck, control one's fate.
Learned Helplessness - A sense of powerlessness arising from repeated negative experiences.
Attributional Style - How individuals explain positive or negative events.
Situational Factors - The idea that behavior is influenced by the specific attributes of a situation.
Competencies - Intellectual and social abilities that influence behavior.
Cognitive Strategies - Different perceptions of events that affect behavior.
Expectancies - Predictions about the outcomes of different behaviors.
Subjective Values - Personal values assigned to potential outcomes.
Self-Regulatory Systems - Internal rules and standards that guide behavior.
Biological Perspective - The theory that genes, chemicals, and body types influence personality.
Temperament - A person’s emotional style and typical way of interacting with the world.
Hippocrates’ Four Humors Theory - The belief that personality is influenced by bodily fluids (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm).
William Sheldon’s Somatotype Theory - A theory linking body types to personality traits:
Endomorphs (fat) - Friendly and outgoing.
Mesomorphs (muscular) - Aggressive and bold.
Ectomorphs (thin) - Shy and secretive.
Abraham Maslow – Emphasized the goal of self-actualization.
Carl Rogers – Emphasized unconditional positive regard—acceptance and love from others independent of behavior.
George Kelly – Developed the concept of personal constructs, which we use to judge and predict others' behavior.
Julian Rotter – Introduced locus of control, the degree to which we believe outcomes depend on our own actions versus external forces.
Gordon Allport – Proposed three levels of traits:
Cardinal traits – Defining characteristics that dominate behavior.
Central traits – General characteristics shaping most behaviors.
Secondary traits – Traits that appear in specific situations.
Hans Eysenck – Identified three genetically influenced dimensions of personality using factor analysis:
Extroversion – Measures sociability and external focus.
Neuroticism – Measures emotional stability.
Psychoticism – Measures tough-mindedness versus empathy.
Raymond Cattell – Studied surface traits and identified 16 source traits underlying personality, leading to the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).
Sigmund Freud – Proposed a psychosexual theory of personality development with five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Anal Stage (1 – 3 Years) – A stage where pleasure is focused on bowel and bladder control, with toilet training being a key experience. Fixation can result in an anal-retentive personality (organized, controlling) or an anal-expulsive personality (messy, careless).
Phallic Stage (3 – 6 Years) – A stage where pleasure is focused on the genitals (not in a sexual way). Children develop gender identity through identification with the same-sex parent. This stage includes the Oedipus Complex (boys) and Electra Complex (girls). Fixation can lead to vanity, narcissism, or relationship difficulties.
Oedipus Complex – A theory that boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and view their fathers as rivals, later resolving this by identifying with their fathers.
Electra Complex – A theory that girls develop unconscious desires for their fathers and resentment toward their mothers, later resolving this by identifying with their mothers.
Latency Stage (6 – 12 Years) – A stage where sexual feelings are dormant, and children focus on social development, friendships, and learning. Generally, no fixations occur in this stage.
Genital Stage (Puberty – Adulthood) – A stage where sexual desires mature, and individuals seek romantic relationships. Successful completion leads to well-balanced relationships, while unresolved fixations from earlier stages may cause difficulties with intimacy.
Carl Jung – Proposed the collective unconscious, which includes archetypes (universal symbols and concepts shared by all humans).
Alfred Adler – Introduced the inferiority complex, suggesting that people are motivated by the fear of failure and the desire for superiority.
Karen Horney – Studied neurotic personality and argued that cultural factors, rather than biological differences, shape personality.
Social Cognitive Theories
Walter Mischel – Developed the Person-Situation Debate, questioning whether personality is more influenced by traits or situations.
Five Person Variables – Competencies, cognitive strategies, expectancies, subjective values, and self-regulatory systems, which influence behavior.
Delayed Gratification – The ability to resist immediate rewards for a larger reward in the future (e.g., Marshmallow Experiment).