Percentiles

A statistical measure indicating the value below which a given percentage of observations fall. For example, the 50th percentile (median) means that 50% of the data points are below that value.##

Malnutrition

A condition resulting from an insufficient or unbalanced diet, leading to health issues such as undernutrition or obesity.

Wasting

A form of malnutrition characterized by low weight for height, indicating acute undernutrition.

Stunting

A form of malnutrition where a child's height is significantly below the average for their age, indicating chronic undernutrition.

Ways to Keep a Child Healthy

Promoting regular physical activity, balanced nutrition, adequate sleep, routine medical check-ups, and mental health support.

Nutrition

The process of obtaining and utilizing food substances necessary for growth, metabolism, and overall health.

Immunizations

Vaccines that protect individuals from infectious diseases by stimulating the immune system to recognize and fight specific pathogens.

Sleep

A natural state of rest characterized by altered consciousness, inhibited sensory activity, and inhibition of voluntary muscles, essential for growth and development.

Sudden Unexpected Infant Death Syndrome (SUID)

The sudden, unexplained death of an infant, often occurring during sleep, which includes conditions such as Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).

The Changing Brain

Refers to the brain's development and adaptability throughout different life stages, influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

Axons & Dendrites

Axons are long projections of neurons that transmit electrical impulses away from the cell body; dendrites are tree-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to facilitate communication.

Pruning

The process of eliminating unused synapses in the brain, refining neural connections to improve efficiency.

### Myelin/Myelination

Myelin is a fatty substance that insulates axons, increasing the speed of electrical signals; myelination is the process of forming this protective sheath.

### Experience-Expectant Brain Development

Developmental processes that depend on typical environmental experiences during critical periods, such as sensory stimulation.

### Experience-Dependent Brain Development

Development that occurs in response to unique individual experiences, leading to varying outcomes among different individuals.

### Moving

Refers to physical activity, which is crucial for developing motor skills and overall health in children.

### Gross vs. Fine Motor Skills

Gross motor skills involve large muscle groups and whole-body movement (e.g., running, jumping); fine motor skills involve smaller muscle movements, often in hands and fingers (e.g., writing, buttoning).

### Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Growth

Cephalocaudal growth refers to development from head to toe; proximodistal growth refers to development from the center of the body outward.

### Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood

#### Piaget’s Sensorimotor Period

A stage in Piaget's theory (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

#### Key Events in Each Stage:

- Object permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.

#### Information Processing Approach

A cognitive framework that compares the human mind to a computer, focusing on how information is processed, stored, and retrieved.

#### Joint Attention

A social-cognitive skill where two people focus on the same object or event, facilitating learning and communication.

#### Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, indicating learning and memory processes.

#### Changes in Memory

Refers to the evolving capacity of infants to encode, store, and retrieve information as they grow.

#### Mobile and Ribbon Memory Study

A study demonstrating infant memory and learning through a mobile attached to a ribbon tied to their foot, showing that infants can remember actions.

#### What Builds a Baby’s Cognitive Skills?

Interaction, stimulation, responsive caregiving, and exploration of the environment.

#### High-Quality Care Outside the Home

Care that is nurturing, stimulating, and supports development through structured activities and emotional support.

#### Impacts of Excessive Screen Time

Can lead to negative effects on attention, learning, and social skills, as well as potential physical health issues.

#### Language Development

The process through which children acquire and develop their ability to communicate verbally.

#### Holophrases

Single words used by infants to express a complete idea or meaning.

#### Overextension

When a child applies a word too broadly to objects that are not part of the word's meaning (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "dog").

#### Underextension

When a child applies a word too narrowly, restricting it to a single instance rather than its broader category.

#### Fast-Mapping

A rapid process where children learn new words and make quick connections to their meanings after limited exposure.

#### Infant-Directed Speech

A special form of speech used by adults when talking to infants, characterized by higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, and slower tempo.

#### 3 Theories of Language Development

1. Nativist Theory: Language is innate and develops naturally.

2. Learning Theory: Language is acquired through reinforcement and imitation.

3. Interactionist Theory: Language development is influenced by social interaction.

### Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

#### Sigmund Freud’s Stages

Freud's theory posits that personality develops through a series of childhood stages:

- Oral Stage: Focus on oral pleasures (e.g., sucking, biting).

- Anal Stage: Focus on bowel and bladder control.

#### Erik Erikson’s Stages

A theory of psychosocial development:

- Trust vs. Mistrust: Infants learn to trust caregivers.

- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlers develop a sense of personal control.

#### Influence of Culture on Parenting

Different cultures have varying beliefs and practices that shape parenting styles and child-rearing.

#### Collectivist

Cultures that emphasize group goals and interdependence.

#### Individualistic

Cultures that prioritize individual goals and personal autonomy.

#### Emotional Development

The process by which children learn to recognize, express, and manage their emotions.

#### Social Smile

A smile directed at others, typically emerging around 6-8 weeks of age.

#### Stranger Anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people that typically develops around 6-12 months.

#### Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced by infants when separated from primary caregivers, usually starting around 6-8 months.

#### Social Referencing

The process by which infants look to caregivers for cues on how to respond to unfamiliar situations.

#### Self-Awareness

Recognition of oneself as an individual, separate from the environment and others.

#### Mirror Self-Recognition Test

A test used to determine if a child can recognize themselves in a mirror, indicating self-awareness.

#### Emotional Regulation

The ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences appropriately.

#### Still-Face Procedure

An experimental procedure that demonstrates infants' reactions to changes in caregiver responsiveness.

#### 3 Categories/Dimensions of Temperament

1. Easy: Adaptable, regular in routine, and positive mood.

2. Difficult: Intense emotions, irregular routines, and negative mood.

3. Slow to Warm Up: Inactive, moody, and may require time to adjust.

#### Goodness of Fit

The compatibility between a child's temperament and their environment, affecting development and adjustment.

#### Supportive Parenting

Parenting that is responsive, nurturing, and promotes healthy emotional and social development.

#### Attachment

The emotional bond that develops between a child and their caregiver, influencing social and emotional growth.

#### The Strange Situation

A procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment styles in children through a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver.

#### Types of Attachment

1. Secure: Strong, healthy bond with the caregiver.

2. Insecure-Avoidant: Indifference toward caregiver.

3. Insecure-Resistant: Ambivalence and clinginess towards caregiver.

#### Quality Early Child-Care

Care that is nurturing, stimulating, and provides a safe environment for children to explore and learn.

### Chapter 7: Physical Development: E.C

#### Early Childhood Period

The stage from ages 2 to 6, characterized by significant growth and development in various domains.

#### Brain Growth

The rapid increase in brain size and complexity that occurs during early childhood.

#### Lateralization

The specialization of brain hemispheres for different functions (e.g., language in the left hemisphere).

#### Toilet Training

The process of teaching a child to use the toilet, typically occurring between ages 2 and 3.

#### Importance of Sleep

Adequate sleep is crucial for physical health, cognitive function, and emotional regulation in young children.

#### Staying Active

Regular physical activity is essential for healthy growth, development, and overall well-being.

#### Healthy Eating

A balanced diet rich in nutrients supports physical growth and cognitive development in children.

#### Body Image

Children's perceptions of their physical appearance, which can be influenced by social and cultural factors.

#### Interventions to Improve Nutrition

Programs and strategies designed to promote healthy eating habits among children and families.

#### Common Hazards

Potential risks that can harm children's health, such as choking, poisoning, or accidents.

#### Hygiene Hypothesis

The theory suggesting that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents and microorganisms increases susceptibility to allergic diseases.

#### Accidents and Injuries

Unintentional injuries that can occur during early childhood, emphasizing the need for safety precautions.

Chapter 8: Cognitive Development: E.C

Preoperational Thought (Piaget)

The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (ages 2-7), characterized by the emergence of symbolic thinking, language development, and imagination, but lacking logical reasoning.

Symbolism

The use of symbols, such as words or images, to represent objects, concepts, or ideas.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects possess feelings, thoughts, and lifelike qualities, often seen in young children's imaginative play.

Centration

The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while neglecting others, common in preoperational thought.

Magical Thinking

A belief in causality that does not follow logical rules, where children think their thoughts or wishes can influence the world around them.

Egocentrism

The inability to see a situation from another person's perspective, a characteristic of preoperational thought.

Reversibility

The understanding that actions can be reversed, allowing for a return to the original state, which develops later in cognitive development.

Conservation Task

A test designed to assess a child's understanding that certain properties (like volume or number) remain constant despite changes in shape or appearance.

Vygotsky's Theory of Children's Learning

A sociocultural theory emphasizing the importance of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development, proposing that learning is facilitated through dialogue and collaboration.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts, gradually reducing assistance as they become more competent.

ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

The range of tasks that a child can perform with guidance but not yet independently, indicating the potential for learning.

Private Speech

The self-directed speech children use to guide their own actions and thinking, often seen during problem-solving tasks.

Information Processing Approach

A cognitive theory that likens the mind to a computer, focusing on how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Memory

The mental capacity to store, retain, and recall information and experiences.

Episodic Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, experiences, or episodes in a person's life.

Childhood Amnesia

The phenomenon where individuals are unable to recall memories from early childhood, typically before age 3-4.

Working Memory

A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks such as reasoning and learning.

Executive Function

Higher-level cognitive processes, including planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and self-control.

Challenges - ADHD Characteristics

Common traits of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) include impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity, which can affect learning and behavior.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one’s own, which develops during early childhood.

Developing Language

The process by which children acquire the ability to communicate verbally, including vocabulary growth, grammar, and social communication skills.

Dual Language Learners

Children who are learning two languages simultaneously, often developing bilingual skills.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities for internal satisfaction; extrinsic motivation involves doing something for external rewards or to avoid negative outcomes.

Being Ready for School

The state of being prepared socially, emotionally, physically, and cognitively to enter and succeed in a school environment.

Quality Schools

Schools that provide a supportive, engaging, and effective learning environment, fostering holistic development and academic success.

Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development: E.C

Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage in Erikson's psychosocial development theory (ages 3-6), where children assert control and power over their environment, leading to a sense of initiative or feelings of guilt when they overstep boundaries.

Emotion Regulation in EC

The ability of young children to manage and respond to their emotional experiences, which is crucial for social interactions and overall well-being.

Psychological Disorders

Mental health conditions that affect a child's thinking, behavior, and emotional well-being, potentially impacting development and functioning.

Early Warning Signs

Indicators that a child may be experiencing developmental or psychological difficulties, such as changes in behavior, social withdrawal, or emotional distress.

Trauma-Informed Care

An approach to understanding and responding to the effects of trauma on individuals, emphasizing safety, empowerment, and support.

Brain Maturation for Self-Regulation

The development of brain structures and functions that enable children to control their emotions, behaviors, and impulses effectively.

Culture and Socializing Emotions

The influence of cultural norms and practices on how children learn to express and manage emotions.

Developing an Identity

The process by which children begin to understand who they are, including their personal values, beliefs, and social roles.

Gender

The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female, influencing identity and social interactions.

Ethnicity

A category of people who identify with one another based on shared cultural, linguistic, or ancestral heritage.

Family Relationships in EC

The dynamics and interactions within a family that influence a child's emotional and social development.

Parental Beliefs

The values and attitudes that parents hold about child-rearing, which can significantly shape parenting practices and child outcomes.

How It Affects Parenting

Parental beliefs influence decisions regarding discipline, education, and emotional support, impacting child development.

Parenting Styles

Patterns of parenting behavior characterized by different levels of responsiveness and demandingness, including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles.

Discipline

Methods used by parents to teach children self-control and appropriate behavior, which can vary widely in approach.

Maltreatment

Abuse or neglect that harms a child's physical or emotional well-being, including physical, emotional, sexual abuse, and neglect.

Definitions and the Types of Abuse

1. Physical Abuse: Infliction of physical injury or harm.

2. Emotional Abuse: Behavior that harms a child’s emotional well-being, including verbal abuse.

3. Sexual Abuse: Inappropriate sexual behavior with a child.

4. Neglect: Failure to provide for a child’s basic needs, including food, shelter, and emotional support.

Supporting Positive Relationships

Strategies and practices that foster healthy, supportive relationships between children and caregivers, enhancing social and emotional development.

Play

A vital activity through which children explore their environment, develop social skills, and engage in imaginative thinking.

Types of Play

1. Solitary Play: Playing alone.

2. Parallel Play: Playing alongside others without interaction.

3. Associative Play: Interaction with others while engaging in similar activities.

4. Cooperative Play: Organized play involving cooperation and teamwork.

Morals

Principles and beliefs regarding right and wrong behavior, which children begin to develop through socialization and experience.

Types of Aggression

1. Instrumental Aggression: Goal-directed behavior intended to gain something.

2. Hostile Aggression: Intent to harm others emotionally or physically, often reactive.