CT

exam 1 study guide pdf

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy

  • Removal of Eponyms

    • Transition to descriptive terms for anatomical structures to reduce medical confusion.

  • Importance of Spelling

    • Anatomy contains many similar terms; correct spelling is crucial to distinguish different structures.

  • Holism vs. Reductionism

    • Holism: Analyzes the big picture.

    • Reductionism: Breaks down systems into individual parts for explanation.

  • Non-Invasive Diagnostic Techniques

    1. Inspection

    2. Palpation

    3. Auscultation

    4. Percussion

    5. Medical Imaging

  • 8 Properties of Living Things

    1. Organization

      • Hierarchical complexity.

    2. Cellular Composition

      • Cytology, cell theory, variations in shapes/sizes, limited cell size.

    3. Metabolism

      • Includes catabolism and anabolism; enzymes act as catalysts to speed up reactions.

    4. Responsiveness

      • Senses and reacts to stimuli; involves movement.

    5. Development

      • Changes in form or function through differentiation and growth.

    6. Reproduction

      • Chromosomes, genes, genomes involved in genetic transfer.

    7. Evolution

      • Adaptation and natural selection influence genetic composition.

    8. Homeostasis

      • State of dynamic equilibrium with set points; maintaining stability through feedback mechanisms.

  • Cells

    • The simplest living body structure; basis of all life.

  • Characterization of Growth

    • Growth and development explain increased size/complexity of systems.

  • Gradient Concept

    • Difference in variables from one point to another.

    • Movement:

      • Down the gradient: High to low, no energy required.

      • Up the gradient: Low to high, energy required.

  • Feedback Loop Components

    1. Stimulus

    2. Sensor

    3. Control center

    4. Effector

Chapter 2: Basic Biological Concepts

  • Atom

    • Smallest particle of an element.

  • Components of Atoms

    • Protons: Positively charged within the nucleus.

    • Neutrons: Neutral particles also within the nucleus.

    • Electrons: Negatively charged, orbit around the nucleus.

  • Types of Bonds

    • Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

    • Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons between atoms.

    • Hydrogen Bond: Attraction between atoms already in other bonds.

Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function

  • Plasma Membrane Roles

    • Protective barrier.

    • Regulates entry/exit of substances.

    • Maintains internal environment.

    • Facilitates communication via protein receptors.

  • Composition of Plasma Membrane

    • Lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol), proteins, carbohydrate groups.

  • Osmosis

    • Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high solute concentration.

  • Diffusion

    • Movement of molecules down their concentration gradient.

Chapter 4: Cellular Processes

  • Mitosis

    • Mechanism of cell division essential for growth and development.

  • Primary Function of DNA

    • Stores instructions for protein synthesis.

  • Phases of the Cell Cycle

    1. Gap 1 (G1): Growth and metabolic role.

    2. Synthesis (S): DNA replication.

    3. Gap 2 (G2): Growth and preparation for division.

    4. Mitosis (M): Cell division occurs here.

  • Phases of Mitosis

    1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane breaks down, spindle fibers form.

    2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align along the cell's equator.

    3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles.

    4. Telophase: Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes.

  • Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm into two separate cells.

Chapter 5: Tissue Types

  • Primary Germ Layers

    • Ectoderm: Forms epidermis and nervous system.

    • Endoderm: Forms mucus membranes of digestive/respiratory tracts.

    • Mesoderm: Transitional layer of loosely organized cells.

  • Primary Tissue Types

    • Epithelial Tissue:

      • Functions: Protection, secretion, absorption.

      • Characteristics: Densely packed, minimal intercellular space, rests on basement membrane.

    • Connective Tissue:

      • Functions: Binding organs, support, immune protection.

      • Characteristics: Variable matrix, many cell types, and extensive extracellular matrix.

    • Muscle Tissue:

      • Functions: Movement, posture, temperature regulation.

      • Characteristics: Elasticity, contractility, and striated.

    • Nervous Tissue:

      • Functions: Senses changes, transmits stimuli for responses.

      • Characteristics: High cellularity, little extracellular matrix.

  • Cell Junctions

    • Tight Junctions: Seal between cells.

    • Gap Junctions: Connect cytoplasm of neighboring cells.

  • Basement Membrane

    • Thin layer beneath epithelium, composed of glycoproteins and collagen.

  • Gland Types

    • Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones into bloodstream.

    • Exocrine Glands: Release substances through ducts.

  • Mucous Membrane

    • Composed of epithelial tissue over loose connective tissue; protects from pathogens.

  • Muscle Control

    • Voluntary Control: Skeletal muscle.

    • Involuntary Control: Smooth and cardiac muscles.

  • Connective Tissue Fluid Types

    • Blood: Most fluid connective tissue.

  • Gland Types

    • Merocrine Glands: Release via exocytosis without damage.

    • Apocrine Glands: Bud off a portion of cell membrane.

    • Holocrine Glands: Rupture entirely, destroying the cell.