Memory Notes

Chapter 8: Memory (8.1 & 8.2)

Memory Processes

• Memory: Set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.
  • Three Key Processes:
  • Encoding: Input of information into memory; efforts to label or code sensory info.
  • Storage: Creation of a permanent memory record.
  • Retrieval: Bringing information from long-term memory (LTM) back to short-term memory (STM).

Encoding

• Types of Processing:

  • Automatic Processing:
  • Involuntary; occurs without conscious effort.
  • Example: Remembering your breakfast without trying.
  • Effortful Processing:
  • Requires attention and effort; often involves studying.

• Types of Encoding:

  • Visual Encoding: Encoding images.
  • Acoustic Encoding: Encoding sounds, such as the way words sound.
  • Relevant in learning through songs (e.g., ABCs).
  • Semantic Encoding:
  • Encoding words and meanings; most effective type when using self-reference.
  • High-imagery words are recalled better due to visual & semantic encoding.

Storage

• Memory must go through three stages to move to long-term storage:
  1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory events; lasts seconds.
  2. Short-Term Memory (STM):
  • Lasts 15-30 seconds; capacity of 7 ± 2 items.
  • Processes info. from sensory memory; can link with long-term memory.
  1. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
  • Permanent storage; believed unlimited.
  • Organized in associative networks; can be explicit or implicit.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Works as a component of working memory.
• Can retain 5-9 pieces of info; active rehearsal aids memory consolidation.
• Factors affecting retention:
  • Type of information (better recall for numbers).
  • Memory Trace Decay: Info. becomes less activated over time without rehearsal, becoming forgotten.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Explicit Memory:
  • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences, reported as stories.
  • Semantic Memory: General factual knowledge about concepts and language.
• Implicit Memory:
  • Procedural Memory: Skills and how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike).
  • Emotional Conditioning: Emotional responses related to stimuli.

Retrieval

• Types of Retrieval:
  • Recognition: Identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple choice).
  • Recall: Recollecting info. without cues (e.g., essay answers).
  • Relearning: Learning info. again that was previously learned.

The Brain and Memory (8.2)

• Amygdala: Involved in emotion regulation and memory formation, particularly emotional memories.
• Hippocampus: Facilitates recognition and forms connections between memories; crucial for declarative memory consolidation.
• Cerebellum: Processes implicit memories, especially procedural memory.
• Prefrontal Cortex: Engaged in semantic memory processing.

Flashbulb Memories

• Vivid memories tied to emotional or significant events.
• Memory clarity does not guarantee accuracy; influenced by strong emotions.

Memory Problems (Amnesia 8.3)

• Types of Amnesia:
  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories post-event (often hippocampal damage).
  • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall events before the incident.

Memory Errors and Construction

• Construction vs. Reconstruction:
  • Memory formation and retrieval can be altered or influenced by external suggestions, leading to false memories.
• Eyewitness Misidentification:
  • Affected by attention lapses and biases, leading to misinformation and inaccurate recall.

Forgetting

• Forgetting Causes:
  • Encoding Failure: Info never enters LTM.
  • Memory Decay: Gradual loss of memory over time.
  • Interference: Prior knowledge affects recall of new information (proactive and retroactive interference).

Memory-Enhancing Strategies (8.4)

• Rehearsal: Repeat information conscious; elaborative rehearsal connects new info with existing knowledge.
• Chunking: Organizing information into manageable pieces (e.g., phone numbers).
• Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids (e.g., using acronyms or visualizations).
• Effective Studying: Utilize ways to enhance memory such as deep processing and sleep.

Conclusion

• Understanding memory processes, types, and effective strategies aids in enhancing learning and retention, while awareness of memory flaws can improve testimonies and memory accuracy.