BK

Memory Notes

Chapter 8: Memory (8.1 & 8.2)

Memory Processes

  • Memory: Set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.
    • Three Key Processes:
    • Encoding: Input of information into memory; efforts to label or code sensory info.
    • Storage: Creation of a permanent memory record.
    • Retrieval: Bringing information from long-term memory (LTM) back to short-term memory (STM).

Encoding

  • Types of Processing:

    • Automatic Processing:
    • Involuntary; occurs without conscious effort.
    • Example: Remembering your breakfast without trying.
    • Effortful Processing:
    • Requires attention and effort; often involves studying.

  • Types of Encoding:

    • Visual Encoding: Encoding images.
    • Acoustic Encoding: Encoding sounds, such as the way words sound.
    • Relevant in learning through songs (e.g., ABCs).
    • Semantic Encoding:
    • Encoding words and meanings; most effective type when using self-reference.
    • High-imagery words are recalled better due to visual & semantic encoding.

Storage

  • Memory must go through three stages to move to long-term storage:
    1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory events; lasts seconds.
    2. Short-Term Memory (STM):
    • Lasts 15-30 seconds; capacity of 7 ± 2 items.
    • Processes info. from sensory memory; can link with long-term memory.
    1. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
    • Permanent storage; believed unlimited.
    • Organized in associative networks; can be explicit or implicit.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Works as a component of working memory.
  • Can retain 5-9 pieces of info; active rehearsal aids memory consolidation.
  • Factors affecting retention:
    • Type of information (better recall for numbers).
    • Memory Trace Decay: Info. becomes less activated over time without rehearsal, becoming forgotten.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Explicit Memory:
    • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences, reported as stories.
    • Semantic Memory: General factual knowledge about concepts and language.
  • Implicit Memory:
    • Procedural Memory: Skills and how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike).
    • Emotional Conditioning: Emotional responses related to stimuli.

Retrieval

  • Types of Retrieval:
    • Recognition: Identifying previously learned information (e.g., multiple choice).
    • Recall: Recollecting info. without cues (e.g., essay answers).
    • Relearning: Learning info. again that was previously learned.

The Brain and Memory (8.2)

  • Amygdala: Involved in emotion regulation and memory formation, particularly emotional memories.
  • Hippocampus: Facilitates recognition and forms connections between memories; crucial for declarative memory consolidation.
  • Cerebellum: Processes implicit memories, especially procedural memory.
  • Prefrontal Cortex: Engaged in semantic memory processing.

Flashbulb Memories

  • Vivid memories tied to emotional or significant events.
  • Memory clarity does not guarantee accuracy; influenced by strong emotions.

Memory Problems (Amnesia 8.3)

  • Types of Amnesia:
    • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories post-event (often hippocampal damage).
    • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall events before the incident.

Memory Errors and Construction

  • Construction vs. Reconstruction:
    • Memory formation and retrieval can be altered or influenced by external suggestions, leading to false memories.
  • Eyewitness Misidentification:
    • Affected by attention lapses and biases, leading to misinformation and inaccurate recall.

Forgetting

  • Forgetting Causes:
    • Encoding Failure: Info never enters LTM.
    • Memory Decay: Gradual loss of memory over time.
    • Interference: Prior knowledge affects recall of new information (proactive and retroactive interference).

Memory-Enhancing Strategies (8.4)

  • Rehearsal: Repeat information conscious; elaborative rehearsal connects new info with existing knowledge.
  • Chunking: Organizing information into manageable pieces (e.g., phone numbers).
  • Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids (e.g., using acronyms or visualizations).
  • Effective Studying: Utilize ways to enhance memory such as deep processing and sleep.

Conclusion

  • Understanding memory processes, types, and effective strategies aids in enhancing learning and retention, while awareness of memory flaws can improve testimonies and memory accuracy.