Chapter 8: Two-Group Design Texting: I Can't Get You Out of My Mind

8.1 Weighing Our Options: Picking a Design

• Benefits of an Experimental Design

  • Covariation

    • Changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

    • Essential for establishing causality.

  • Temporal Precedence

    • Changes in the cause (treatment) occur before changes in the effect (outcome).

    • Another step in establishing causality.

  • Extraneous Variables

    • Factors other than the treatment that can influence the outcome measure.

    • Important for determining causality.

  • Internal Validity

    • The degree to which alternative causal explanations can be ruled out in the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

8.2 Benefits of a Non-Experimental Design

• External Validity

• Ecological Validity

• Certain Variables Cannot Be Manipulated

  • Examples: Gender, age, mental illness, homelessness.

  • Some variables may be manipulated in animal research (e.g., substance abuse).

8.3 It All Starts with a Question

• Key Question:

  • Can trying to ignore a text message lead to distraction?

8.4 Review of the Literature

• Prevalence of Texting

  • 95% of students bring cellular devices to lectures daily.

• Influence of Texting on Driving

  • Texting caused an estimated 16,000 fatalities from 2001 to 2007.

• Negative Impact on Learning

  • Increased texting and laptop use correlated with worse test scores.

  • Texting associated with higher driving fatalities.

• Potential Benefits and Consequences of Preventing Texting

8.5 Defining Key Terms

• Ignoring Distraction

  • The process of attempting to not engage with distracting stimuli (like text messages).

8.6 Design Breakdown

• Variables

  • Independent Variable (IV):

    • Trying to ignore (rules about phone use, “ignoring texts”).

  • Dependent Variable (DV):

    • Amount of distraction (performance on task).

• Groups

  • High-Restriction “Forbidden Phone” Group

  • Low-Restriction “Phone Checker” Group.

8.7 Design in Action (Procedure)

• Obtain informed consent from participants.

• Show a 30-minute lecture video; cell phones must be on vibrate and placed in a basket.

• Experimental group cannot use cell phones, control group can check texts.

• Five confederates to enhance realism during the study.

• Researcher sends eight text messages during the lecture.

• Record any unexpected text messages received.

• Administer knowledge test and manipulation check post-lecture.

• Collect demographic information from participants.

• Conduct debriefing after the study.

8.8 Focus on Ethics

• Discussion: Should the texting study be conducted in a real classroom?

  • Consider ethical implications and participant welfare.

8.9 Statistics: In Search of Answers

• Data Analysis Tasks

  • Ensure group similarity on alternative variables.

  • Check manipulation effectiveness.

  • Test the hypothesis.

  • Key features of design: between-subjects.

  • Choose appropriate statistics.

8.10 Anatomy of a t-test for Independent Means

• Fundamental question: Are there differences in scores between two groups?

  • Independent samples t-test examines differences against within-group variability.

8.11 Example: Signal-to-Noise Ratios

• Comparison of two conditions (e.g., vitamins) and their impact on performance.

• Discuss differences in means and significance.

8.12 Statistical Significance of t values

• Understand t distribution and degrees of freedom.

• Significant values indicate greater confidence in differences between groups.

8.13 A Note on p-values

• P-value indicates the probability that results are due to chance (e.g., p < .05).

8.14 Maximizing t test values (“Statistical Power”)

• Strategies include driving means apart, decreasing group variability, and increasing sample sizes.

8.15 Writing Results in APA Style

• Alternate Explanations

  • Conduct analyses comparing high- and low-restriction groups on variables.

• Manipulation Check

  • Validate the effectiveness of the treatment and check for distraction measures.

8.16 Writing Results in APA Style

• Present findings from tests comparing cell phone restriction to quiz scores, discussing statistical significance and effect size.

8.17 Discussion Summary

• Findings

  • No significant differences in typical cell phone use, texting expertise, etc.

  • Manipulation was effective; high-restriction group reported more distraction and had lower quiz scores.

• Two-Group Comparisons: Instructor Examples

  • Discuss prior studies and comparisons in different contexts and demographics.

Chapter 8: Two-Group Design Texting: I Can't Get You Out of My Mind

8.1 Weighing Our Options: Picking a Design

Benefits of an Experimental Design

• Covariation: Changes in one variable are consistently associated with changes in another. This relationship is crucial for establishing causality, allowing researchers to understand whether variations in the independent variable directly impact the dependent variable.

• Temporal Precedence: This principle stipulates that changes in the cause (the treatment) must occur before the changes in the effect (the outcome). Ensuring this sequence is vital for supporting claims of causation.

• Extraneous Variables: These are factors that could potentially influence the outcome measure but are not related to the treatment. Control of extraneous variables is essential for determining the true causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.

• Internal Validity: This measures the extent to which a study can rule out alternative explanations for the observed relationship between variables. High internal validity indicates that the observed effects are likely the result of manipulations of the independent variable.

8.2 Benefits of a Non-Experimental Design

• External Validity: This refers to the extent to which findings from a study can be generalized to other contexts, populations, and settings.

• Ecological Validity: This is a subset of external validity that evaluates whether study findings apply outside of the controlled environment used in the research.

• Certain Variables Cannot Be Manipulated: There are inherent limitations when dealing with variables such as gender, age, mental illness, or socio-economic status, which cannot ethically be manipulated for experimental purposes. In some animal research contexts, variables like substance abuse may be manipulated to study effects more closely.

8.3 It All Starts with a Question

• Key Question: Can trying to ignore a text message lead to increased distraction? This question highlights the core focus of the study and sets the stage for the exploration of attention and distraction in relation to technology use.

8.4 Review of the Literature

• Prevalence of Texting: Data indicates that 95% of students bring cellular devices to lectures daily, suggesting a pervasive presence of potential distractions in educational settings.

• Influence of Texting on Driving: An alarming statistic shows texting was implicated in an estimated 16,000 fatalities from 2001 to 2007, raising concerns about the dangers of distracted driving.

• Negative Impact on Learning: Evidence links increased texting and laptop use to worse academic performance, indicating that multitasking may distract students from learning material.

• Texting associated with higher driving fatalities: This underscores the need for further investigation into the effects of texting as a pervasive social behavior that has grave consequences.

• Potential Benefits and Consequences of Preventing Texting: Addressing the impacts of texting negligence can highlight areas for intervention and improvement in both personal and academic realms.

8.5 Defining Key Terms

• Ignoring Distraction: This term refers to the active process of attempting to not engage with distracting stimuli, such as incoming text messages, which is pivotal in understanding the cognitive load faced by individuals during tasks.

8.6 Design Breakdown

• Variables:

  • Independent Variable (IV): The act of trying to ignore, characterized by rules regarding phone use and explicit instructions to avoid engaging with text messages.

  • Dependent Variable (DV): The level of distraction experienced, which is measured through performance on a task designed to assess attention and focus.

• Groups: Two groups were formed for the study:

  • High-Restriction “Forbidden Phone” Group: Participants are rigorously instructed to avoid any engagement with their phones.

  • Low-Restriction “Phone Checker” Group: Participants are allowed to check their phones at scheduled intervals, providing contrasting data on distraction levels.

8.7 Design in Action (Procedure)

• Obtain informed consent from participants: Important for ethical standards, ensuring participants are aware of their involvement and any risks involved.

• Show a 30-minute lecture video: All cell phones placed on vibrate and stored in a basket to mitigate distractions.

• Experimental group cannot use cell phones: In contrast, the control group is permitted to check texts periodically as a way to measure differences in distraction.

• Five confederates to enhance realism: Trained actors simulate texting behavior, increasing the authenticity of the study environment.

• Researcher sends eight text messages during the lecture: This is intended to create distractions for both groups and assess their responses.

• Record any unexpected text messages received: This data is useful for analyzing outlier effects on distraction.

• Administer knowledge test and manipulation check post-lecture: Measures participants’ retention and comprehension, providing insights into the effectiveness of the experimental design.

• Collect demographic information from participants: Essential for characterizing the study sample and allowing for deeper analysis of results.

• Conduct debriefing after the study: Important for ethical considerations, providing participants with the chance to understand the purpose and findings related to their involvement.

8.8 Focus on Ethics

• Discussion: Consideration on whether it is ethical to conduct the texting study in a real classroom setting involves weighing potential risks to participants against the benefits of the research findings. Participant welfare must be prioritized.

8.9 Statistics: In Search of Answers

• Data Analysis Tasks: Ensuring group similarity on alternative variables is critical to uphold the rigor of the study. Researchers should assess the effectiveness of the manipulation and test the stated hypothesis.

• Key features of design: The study relies on a between-subjects design to compare the outcomes from the two groups effectively.

• Choose appropriate statistics: Selecting the right statistical tests is crucial for drawing valid conclusions from the data collected.

8.10 Anatomy of a t-test for Independent Means

• Fundamental question: The core inquiry is whether there are significant score differences between the two groups, which is fundamental for determining the impact of text message distraction. The independent samples t-test compares the differences observed against variability within each group.

8.11 Example: Signal-to-Noise Ratios

• Comparison of two conditions (e.g., vitamins) and their impact on performance can serve as a metaphor in understanding how distractions affect focus, discussing variations in mean scores and their statistical significance.

8.12 Statistical Significance of t values

• A clear understanding of t distribution and degrees of freedom is necessary. Significant t values lead to greater confidence in asserting differences between groups.

8.13 A Note on p-values

• The p-value quantitatively expresses the probability that the results obtained are due to chance factors (e.g., p < .05 indicates acceptable statistically significant results).

8.14 Maximizing t test values (“Statistical Power”)

• Strategies include driving means apart through effective treatment application, decreasing group variability by homogenizing participant characteristics, and increasing sample sizes to enhance the robustness of findings.

8.15 Writing Results in APA Style

• Alternate Explanations: Analysis of high- and low-restriction groups on various alternative variables must be reported.

• Manipulation Check: Validate the treatment effectiveness while checking distraction measures, ensuring a thorough examination of study controls and results.

8.16 Writing Results in APA Style

• Present findings from tests comparing the impact of cell phone restriction with quiz scores, discussing both statistical significance and effect size to provide a complete picture of the research outcomes.

8.17 Discussion Summary

• Findings: The study revealed no significant differences in typical cell phone use, participants' texting expertise, or past academic performance. However, the manipulation of conditions was effective; participants in the high-restriction group reported higher levels of distraction and had notably lower quiz scores compared to their low-restriction counterparts.

• Two-Group Comparisons: Instructor Examples: Previous studies and comparisons can be discussed by looking at different demographics and contexts, providing a broader base for understanding the implications of texting distractions in various settings.