ANR130 Study Guide

Botany of Desire (video): Look over worksheet (recall the three plants covered and key concepts for each)

Chapter 1

·        Sustainable intensification of crop production is the main goal in agriculture for the next 40 years. Given the uncertainty of the future climate, the challenges are enormous.

·        In the past 60 years, the human population more than doubled to its present size of approximately 7.5 billion, but food production increased even more, decreasing poverty and food insecurity.

·        In spite of significant advances in food production, food insecurity remains a major problem in developed and developing countries. The solution to food insecurity in cities lies primarily in the sociopolitical realm.

·        Increasing food security in rural areas will depend on building a better infrastructure (e.g., roads, markets, transport, schools, banks, vendors of agricultural inputs such as tools and fertilizer).

·        Population predictions have often been wrong, but present predictions are that the human population will level off between 9 and 11 billion people.

·        Economic development and the empowerment of women are seen as the most critical factors in bringing down the population growth rate of poor countries.

·        Empowered women: are educated to the same level as men, have access to land and capital, are free to choose the person they want to marry, and can determine in consultation with their partner the number of children they will have.

·        Estimates of the increases in food production necessary if we are to feed 10 billion people range from 70% to 100% over the next 35 years. To meet a 50% increase, the productivity of principal staple crops will have to go up by 1.15% per year. This will require closing the yield gap—the difference between actual yields and potential agricultural yields—in many areas of the world.

·        Agriculture is environmentally destructive. To be sustainable, future intensification must not increase the amount of land used for growing crops, and must use agricultural inputs more efficiently.

·        Climate change, in the form of global warming, is a reality that will have consequences for the world’s farms and capacity for food production.

·        Rapid urbanization in developing countries is changing where vegetables are grown and how they are made available to consumers. The depopulation of the land means that farming will have to become more efficient and less labor intensive.

·        Research on crops, soils, and agricultural systems is presently insufficient to meet the demand for a 1.15% increase per year in crop yields.

·        Government policies such as import quotas, subsidies to farmers, food stamp programs, advice on diet composition, and banning crops based on the method of crop improvement all influence what is grown where, how much of it is grown, and how much people pay for food.

·        Agricultural research for the developing regions of the world is carried out by a network of international research institutes that collaborate with various national organizations.

·        Dramatic changes in the diet in developed countries (e.g., more vegetarian or vegan diets, switching to organic products) would not solve the problem of global food insecurity in the short term, but could contribute to long-term solutions.

Figures: 1.6, 1.7, 1.12, Table 1.2

Terms: Green Revolution, grains, yield gap, greenhouse effect, climate change, organic farming, GMOs, GEs

What is Science & Data Analysis: Look over the worksheet you turned in. Know the following terms: controlled experiment vs. observational study, independent variable, dependent variable, n or sample number, mean, p-value (and what indicates significant difference).

Chapter 2

·        Humans evolved 50,000 years ago as hunter-gatherers who ate both plants and animals.

·        Crop and animal domestication—integral to the practices of farming—were essential for the development of human civilizations.

·        Crop domestication arose independently in many different places between 8000 and 10,000 years ago. Different crop plants were domesticated in different parts of the world.

·        Plants (and phytoplankton in the oceans) are the ultimate source of all our food, whether breakfast cereal, hamburgers, or sushi. Plants are the principal source of food for much of humanity.

·        As societies and their economies develop, the preference of people for animal-based food products means that we will have to increase crop production substantially; it takes more than one kilogram of animal feed to produce one kilogram of animal product. Thus the production of animal feed has become a major global industry.

·        Agricultural productivity increased very slowly until about 80 years ago. At that time corn, wheat, and rice yielded about 1500 to 2000 kilograms/hectare.

·        Innovation in agricultural technologies and the release of improved varieties by plant breeders allowed yields to increase dramatically starting around 1940 (maize), 1950 (wheat), and 1965 (rice).

·        The Green Revolution involved the application of agricultural technologies and plant breeding for crops (wheat, rice), and in regions (Latin America, Asia) that until the 1950s had not benefitted from such innovations.

·        Whereas modern science-driven agriculture is highly productive, especially in developed countries, a billion smallholder farmers in developing countries are confined to small farms where productivity is low and where they produce just enough food to supply themselves with the bare essentials of life.

·        Given everything we know today about agricultural production, intensification can proceed very rapidly, as shown by the development of the Cerrado region of Brazil.

·        The presence of food in the supermarket depends on an entire industry that transports, processes, packages, and distributes food products. In the United States, only about 2% of the people are farmers or live on farms, whereas 5% are involved in the postharvest aspects of providing us with food.

·        Basic foodstuffs such as maize and wheat are treated as commodities and traded in futures markets, as are livestock such as cattle and pigs.

·        Farmers, futures traders, and the companies that transport, process, and distribute food together play an important economic role in modern society.

·        Food prices can be affected when the price that farmers have to pay for purchased inputs like oil, fertilizers, electricity, and machinery fluctuate worldwide because of perturbations in the global economy.

·        Modern farming practices have a significant negative impact on the environment, but the detrimental effects can be partially mitigated. For example, precision agriculture is a relatively new development that can help to reduce the use of fertilizer.

Figures: 2.2, 2.5, 2.12

Key Terms: agriculture, domestication, subsistence farming, Centers of origin, fallow, Green Revolution, hybrid, inputs, organic farming, commodities, Cerrado region, precision agriculture

Chapter 4

·        Characteristic traits such as flower color and seed shape are inherited from one generation to the next. Analysis of traits in the progeny of crosses shows that there are two copies of every unit of inheritance, now called a gene, in every cell of every individual; this is the diploid condition.

·        In his experiments, Mendel used traits that showed “either/or” variation. Such discrete traits can be encoded by single genes. Most traits, such as leaf size or grain yield, are encoded by many interacting genes and show continuous variation over a wide range of values.

·        Gametes, or sex cells, have one copy of each gene (haploid). When male and female gametes fuse, the fertilized cell, called the zygote, will give rise to a diploid organism, with two copies of the gene in every cell.

·        Mitosis is characterized by one round of DNA duplication, one round of chromosome separation, and the enclosing of the separated chromosomes in new nuclear envelopes and cell membranes, creating two identical daughter cells from a parent cell.

·        Meiosis is characterized by one round of DNA duplication and two rounds of chromosomal separation without duplication, resulting in four haploid cells, each with one set of chromosomes and their associated genes.

·        During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes align closely after DNA duplication, and chromatids may cross over (exchange segments), creating genetic variability.

·        Genes are made of DNA, a polymer of four nucleotides. Nucleotides are molecules made up of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen-containing bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, and guanine. (ATCG)

·        DNA occurs as double strands in which thymine always pairs with adenine and cytosine always pairs with guanine.

·        Most of a plant’s DNA is in the nucleus but mitochondria and chloroplasts also have some DNA that harbors important genes.

·        Replication of DNA requires that the two strands be separated into two template strands. Individual free nucleotides are added according to the base pairing rules and joined by the enzyme DNA polymerase. Replication produces two identical double-stranded DNA molecules.

·        RNAs are polymers similar toDNA, but much shorter. The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose, and instead of thymine, RNAs have the biochemically similar base uracil.

·        Genes encode the information to make proteins and have protein-coding segments that are generally between 300 and 3000 nucleotides long. Besides protein-coding segments, genes have regulatory regions as well including a promoter at the beginning or 5′ end, a terminator at the 3’ end, and other regulatory regions well in front of (upstream) or beyond (downstream) these sequences.

·        For genes to be expressed, DNA must be transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). The primary transcript, called pre-mRNA, has introns and exons. This pre-mRNA is processed in the nucleus, where introns are excised and exons are ligated together to make a mature mRNA.

·        Once fully transcribed, mature mRNA is exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it binds to ribosomes and, through the mediation of transfer RNA (tRNA), nucleotide triplet—codons—are translated into a chain of amino acids. The genetic code that specifies which of the 20 amino acids a codon produces is universal across virtually all species.

·        The amino acid chains translated from mRNA fold into polypeptide proteins, of which there can be thousands in a given organism. Polypeptides fold into different configurations of various shapes, based on the different biochemical properties and relative positions of the amino acids in the chain. Many proteins are aggregations of several polypeptide subunits.

·        Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA and are a major source of genetic polymorphism (i.e., many forms of a trait). Replacing even a single nucleotide sometimes changes the amino acid sequence encoded in the mRNA and can affect protein function or cause the protein to be inactive.

·        Gene expression encompasses all the steps from transcription of the DNA to the formation of the final protein. Regulatory regions and transcription factors function in regulating gene expression to the correct cell or tissue at the correct time of an organism’s life cycle.

·        In the nucleus, the long double strands of DNA are condensed by being wound tightly around a core of histone proteins. Transcription requires that the condensed DNA (chromatin) be unwound. This is accomplished by the attachment of epigenetic (“outside the gene”) factors, usually acetyl groups, to the histone tails.

·        Other epigenetic factors, especially methyl groups, may attach to a nucleotide in the unwound DNA and block (silence) gene expression; the removal of these factors allows the gene to be expressed.

·        Mutations are the basis of polymorphism in the DNA, which leads to polymorphism in the individuals of a population. Plant breeders are interested in understanding which polymorphism is associated with which trait.

·        DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory by cutting it with bacterial restriction enzymes and splicing it back together.

·        Plasmids are small, circular DNA segments outside the chromosomal material of bacteria. By splicing a plant gene into a bacterial plasmid and infecting the bacteria with the plasmid it is possible to “clone” a gene and produce millions of copies of the gene.

·        The transfer of T-DNA from the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciensis an example of natural horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer. Plant biologists have adapted the natural means of such horizontal transfers to the laboratory, using this method to create genetically engineered plants that carry specific genes.

·        The latest genome editing technologies, such as RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9, have revolutionized our ability to understand and manipulate gene function.

Figures: N/A – see below, perhaps 4.2

Terms: genes, DNA, characteristics, traits, phenotype, genotype, allele, diploid, haploid, zygote, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, chromosomes, multigenic trait, meiosis, mitosis, crossing over, protein synthesis (ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA), gene expression, polymorphism, mutation, wild type, biotechnology, CRISPR-Cas9

Other: Look over Mendel’s peas worksheet. Know how to do a Punnett square (see Fig. 4.2 in this chapter or worksheet)

Chapter 5

·        Plants are multicellular organisms with four organ systems (roots, stems, leaves, and flowers) and three basic tissue types (ground, dermal, and vascular tissues), each with a number of differentiated cell types.

·        Plants develop by repetitively forming new organs from organ primordia, the result of cell divisions by stem cells in meristems.

·        The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is responsible for forming leaf and stem tissues. Leaves originate as leaf primordia, and stem tissues are formed by the basal meristem. SAMs that form leaf and stem tissues can be converted into floral meristems that form sepals, petals, and the plant’s reproductive organs (stamens and carpels).

·        The root apical meristem (RAM) contains stem cells for the different root tissues and for the root cap, a small thimble-shaped mass of cells that protects the RAM as the root pushes through soil. The cells of the root cap must be continually renewed as they wear away.

·        The SAM and the RAM are responsible for the growth of the primary body of the plant. Woody plants (note: only dicots) develop a vascular cambium and a cork cambium. Cell division followed by cell differentiation initiated by these outer layers are responsible for secondary growth.

·        Sexual reproduction requires the formation of haploid sex cells in the reproductive organs. Egg cells are formed in ovules within an ovary. Sperm cells form in pollen grains produced by anthers.

·        Fertilization, the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell, produces a zygote that will grow into an embryo and seed. A second fusion of a sperm cell and a diploid cell in the ovule produces the endosperm mother cell, which gives rise to the endosperm, a nutritive tissue.

·        Seed development encompasses three phases: formation and growth of the embryo; deposition of food reserves within the seed; and maturation of the seed to prepare it for survival in the dry state.

·        Food reserves can be stored either in the cotyledons, which are part of the embryo, or the endosperm. The major reserves are starch, oils, proteins, and minerals complexed with phytic acid. Different genes are expressed during each phase of seed development.

·        Seed formation is accompanied by the growth of the ovary wall into the structures of the fruit. Fruits can be fleshy or dry. Their function is to aid seed dispersal.

·        Seed germination is accompanied by the utilization of seed reserves. Digestive enzymes are produced in the germinating seed and the small molecules produced by the digestion of stored reserves are transported to the growing embryo. This is followed by the development of the vegetative body of the plant (roots and shoots) and then by the formation of flowers with their reproductive structures.

·        Both internal and external signals drive plant development by prompting the expression of specific genes and genetic programs. Signals interact with receptors and the resulting messages are relayed to the nucleus via signal transduction pathways.

·        Mutants of plant developmental processes have played a major role in crop improvement. Some were selected unconsciously during the process of crop domestication. Today, plant breeders actively look for naturally occurring mutants; they also create them by introducing new genes into existing crops.

·        Entire plants can be grown from single cells in cell culture. This is an important avenue for crop improvement using biotechnological techniques.

Figures: 5.1 (note monocot vs. dicot differences), 5.2, 5.6, 5.16, 5.17

Terms: shoot system (SAM), root system (RAM), flower, organelle (vacuole, plastids, cell wall, mitochondria, nucleus, chloroplast), meristems, tissue (dermal- epidermis, stomates, guard cells; ground- parenchyma; vascular- xylem, phloem), sieve tubes, vessels, plasmodesmata, axillary buds, photoreceptor, zygote, carpel, stamen, anther, endosperm, quiescence, dormancy, taproot, fibrous roots, apical dominance, harvest index, annual rings (in woody dicot stems), floral organs or whorls (there are 4), photoperiod, ovary, fruit, fruit set, indeterminate vs. determinate growth

What Plants Talk About (video): This video showed a number of examples of how plant hormones (discussed briefly in chapter 5) are important for plants in the field, as well as what kinds of environmental factors can impact gene expression. You should look over the quiz that you did on this video to remind yourself of the plant case studies highlighted.

Chapter 6

·        All the energy contained in the food people eat is ultimately derived from sunlight through photosynthesis. The amount of harvestable food depends on the product of solar input and the efficiencies with which the plant intercepts and transforms solar energy into the harvested product.

·        Photosynthetic membranes capture light energy and convert it into stable chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Chloroplasts then use this energy to assimilate atmospheric CO₂ and convert it into carbohydrate energy (i.e., sugars and other carbohydrates).

·        When Rubisco fixes O₂ instead of CO₂, the plant uses the energy-intensive process of photorespiration to salvage the lost carbon. C₄ and CAM photosynthetic pathways evolved in some plants to effectively eliminate oxygenation reactions, but at a significant energy cost.

·        Sucrose and other small polysaccharides formed in autotrophic leaves (ie. sources) are exported to heterotrophic plant organs (ie. sinks) to provide energy for growth and to be stored. These sugars also act as regulatory compounds able to signal the balance between demand and photosynthetic production.

·        CO₂ enters plant leaves through stomatal pores. When stomates are open and CO₂ enters the leaf, water is lost to the atmosphere. Guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomates to regulate both CO₂ uptake and water loss.

·        Crop plants daily encounter light levels that exceed their photosynthetic capacity. Plants have evolved a sophisticated set of regulatory photoprotective measures that safeguard plants but at significant cost to photosynthetic efficiency.

·        Plants frequently encounter a variety of environmental stresses that diminish photosynthetic efficiency. Water availability is the single greatest constraint on agricultural production because in dry conditions stomates must close frequently to conserve water, but in so doing starve photosynthesis of CO₂. There are compelling reasons to believe that understanding how plants cope with stressful environments will accelerate crop improvement.

·        The efficiency with which plants convert intercepted solar energy into plant matter is very low. However, significant improvements may be possible by altering the distribution of light among leaves, increasing the efficiency of carboxylation by Rubisco, and introducing more efficient photorespiratory pathways.

·        The increasing CO₂ concentration of the atmosphere since the late 1700s has had both positive and negative impacts on photosynthesis and agricultural production. These impacts, particularly the negative impacts, can be expected to intensify as global change continues.

·        Global photosynthesis has had a large mitigating impact on atmospheric change, roughly halving the rate of rise in atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ caused by human activities, but it is unclear what proportions of emissions will be offset by photosynthesis in the future.

Figures: 6.1A, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 (same as on worksheet), 6.6, 6.7, 6.9, Table 6.1, 6.13. 6.17

Terms: Photosynthesis, chlorophylls, photons, thylakoids, PSI and PSII, NADP+ reductase, ATP (synth)ase, oxidation, reduction, ATP, C3/Calvin cycle, Rubisco, NADPH, photorespiration, C4 photosynthesis, photosynthate, stomates, guard cells, CAM, photoprotection, acclimation, leaf area index

Chapter 7

·        Wheat was domesticated in the Middle East and domestication resulted in diploid (Einkorn), tetraploid (durum or pasta wheat), and hexaploid (bread wheat) varieties.

·        Three varieties of rice—japonica, indica, and aus—were domesticated in different parts of Asia. Modern rice varieties may contain genes from all three.

·        The ancestor of domesticated maize (corn) is teosinte, which still grows wild in central Mexico. Beans were domesticated at least twice, once in Mesoamerica and once in the southern Andes of South America.

·        Domestication is accelerated evolution because of selection pressures imposed by humans (selection of plants and seeds) and farming techniques (harvesting and replanting).

·        Domestication has centered on changes in only a few traits, which together constitute the domestication syndrome. Examples of these traits are seed shattering, seed dormancy, plant architecture, and sensitivity to photoperiod.

·        Mutations selected during domestication either pre-existed the domestication process (they were part of standing variation) or appeared de novo during the process.

·        Many low-resource farmers still grow the landraces that have been grown for centuries by their forebears because they provide greater adaptation to the region and are preferred by local consumers.

·        Crop evolution has been marked by major genetic bottlenecks that follow (1) domestication, (2) dispersal to new regions, and (3) scientific breeding programs. The result is decreased genetic diversity in most crops.

·        Decreased genetic diversity has both advantages (e.g., crop uniformity) and disadvantages (e.g., susceptibility to pests and disease).

·        Hybridization with wild relatives led to crop improvement as new alleles entered the genomes of domesticated varieties, but in some cases can lead to weeds that are difficult to control.

·        Formation of autopolyploids (doubling of the chromosome number) and allopolyploids (two sets of chromosomes from closely related parents) led to new crops.

·        Comparing the DNA sequences of crops and their ancestors allows us to identify the genes of the domestication syndrome. Many are transcription factors that control the expression of genes.

Figures: 7.5 (three sisters), 7.9

Terms: domestication syndrome, standing genetic variation, do novo mutation, cultivars, seed retention or shattering vs. non-shattering, harvest index, landraces, genetic bottleneck, genetic erosion, hybrid, outcrossing, self-fertilization/selfing, polylpoid

Chapter 8

·        Crop improvement requires a never-ceasing pursuit of genetic diversity to introduce new alleles and new gene combinations into elite cultivars. This diversity originates in a wide range of sources, including other cultivars, landraces, wild progenitors, other crossable species, and transgenes.

·        Plant breeding is a well-established science that since the 1930s has adopted approaches aimed to increase the efficiency of selection. These approaches include the use of quantitative genetics, artificial mutagenesis, and marker-assisted selection. More recent tools include genome-wide association studies, genomic selection based on extensive genome sequencing, and high-throughput phenotyping.

·        Plant breeding combines basic molecular biology research with novel selection approaches and is the main driver, combined with cultivation practices, of continued increases in crop productivity.

·        Genetic engineering and the introduction of transgenes from other organisms has become a complementary tool in the plant breeding toolbox.

·        Technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 that permit targeted gene changes are a powerful tool to create the mutants that are needed by crop improvement professionals.

·        DNA sequencing is becoming a routine part of breeding programs because sequence information is a prerequisite for marker-assisted selection to transfer a desirable trait into a target, improved variety. Likewise, such information is a requirement for genome-wide association studies and genomic selection.

Figures: Table 8.2, 8.7, 8.11

Terms: yield potential, harvest index, lodging, hybridization or cross-breeding, heritability, pure line, inbreeding depression, F1 hybrid variety, hybrid vigor, backcrossing, linkage drag, GE crops, genome editing, high-throughput

Chapter 9

·        Plants propagate both sexually and asexually (vegetatively) and people exploit both types for plant propagation.

·        Seedling establishment in the field is an important agronomic variable for crop production. Sowing healthy seeds at the right time ensures a good stand of the crop.

·        Production of seeds to be planted by farmers is often a separate operation from the production of the crop for consumption. Farmers rely on plant breeding companies to supply them with the best seeds.

·        Government-sanctioned seed certification programs ensure that the seeds that farmers use are true to type and represent the correct variety (genotype).

·        To improve seed germination and crop growth, seeds are coated with chemicals to prevent diseases. They may also be primed to improve their germination speed and uniformity.

·        Coating seeds with microorganisms that enhance uptake of nutrients by the plants or carry out nitrogen fixation is an important new technology.

·        Hundreds of seed banks all over the world preserve the genetic diversity of crops and crop relatives present in nature. They also preserve the seeds of non-crop plants.

·        Micropropagation is the use of sterile plant tissue culture to generate somatic embryos (embryos that are not the result of fertilization) or to grow excised meristems into entire plants. This permits the rapid multiplication of unique varieties.

·        Grafting is a horticultural technique, widely used for fruit trees, that consists of uniting the woody tissues of two different genotypes, one called the rootstock and the other one the scion.

·        The many different modes of plant vegetative reproduction are exploited for commercial vegetative propagation.

·        Apomixis is the process of producing uniparental (one-parent) seeds without the benefit of fertilization. Their genetic makeup is identical to that of the plant from which they are produced.

·        Understanding the genetic control of apomixis could result in significant breakthroughs in crop improvement.

Figures: 9.2, 9.13

Terms: propagation, vegetative/asexual propagation, horticulture, pure line, outcrossing, hybrid vigor, seed certification programs, germination, seed pelleting, seed priming, rhizosphere, PGPRs, mycorrhizae, seed banks, recalcitrant seeds, micropropagation, (tissue culture), grafting, rootstock, scion, apomixis

Chapter 10

·        Agricultural innovations and improvements have been made since the beginning of farming. They comprise three categories: physical production improvement (ground preparation, harvesting, irrigation etc.); chemical production improvement (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides); and biological improvements in the crops themselves (plant genetics).

·        The benefits these improvements provide to farmers include: reduced labor requirements, directly increased crop yields, and reduced crop losses from diseases and other negative influences (i.e., indirectly increased crop yields). Overall, agricultural innovations have resulted in improved food security, a shift of the working population away from farming and into other activities and professions, improved economic wellbeing for farmers, and more affordable food for consumers.

·        Innovations in agriculture have been developed from research conducted in nonprofit programs such as those operated by governments and academic institutions, and by for-profit industry. Sometimes the underlying technology was developed in other or wider contexts and then applied to agriculture, as with the Haber-Bosch process for producing ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen, which revolutionized the production of the nitrogen fertilizers on which modern agriculture depends.

·        Many inventions are patented. The purpose of patent-protection is to encourage investment in innovation and the transfer of that innovation to those who can benefit from it, such as farmers.

·        Patented agricultural technologies include diverse kinds of equipment, chemicals, and improved plant varieties.

·        While farmers benefit from the novel and patented technologies, they also experience certain restrictions associated with their use. Many people express concern about patenting plants, especially legal agreements that prevent farmers from saving seed for subsequent plantings.

·        Restrictions on saving seed notwithstanding, many farmers in developing countries have been able to obtain modern plant varieties via the assistance of various aid organizations.

·        Farmers obtain seeds in one or more of four different ways, depending on the crop species, their method of farming (subsistence, variously industrial etc.), and whether the variety is patented. They may obtain seed freely through sharing with other farmers; purchase from seed companies with no restrictions on their future propagation; purchase seed of varieties suitable for only one crop-production cycle (e.g., hybrid corn); and/or purchase with formal agreement that limits use to a single crop-production cycle.

·        The ability to patent plant varieties combined with the development of advanced plant genetics (including, but not limited to, transgenic varieties) led to considerable consolidation of the seed-supply industry.

·        Domination of the seed supply for the major crops by just a few large companies has led to concerns about limited genetic diversity among the major crops, and debate about who actually owns plant varieties.

·        The high cost of developing plant traits using genetic engineering limits its application to a few major crops that are widely grown. Many specialty crops grown in smaller quantities receive less research support. Orphan crops, especially those grown in developing countries, often receive very little advanced R&D support.

·        Research into organic production methods is supported by universities and a few private institutions.

·        Many technologies employed in agriculture are subject to mandated standards, applied at the levels of both the developer and the end-user (i.e., the farmer). Independent regulation is designed to protect farm workers, the environment, and consumers of the resulting food products. Agricultural chemicals and genetically engineered varieties must be approved by the regulatory system prior to their use on farms.

Figures: 10.3, 10.7

Terms: Agricultural Services Industry, proprietary technologies, R&D, technology transfer, Cooperative Extension Service, patent, Haber-Bosch process, germplasm, “orphan” crops