Chap 26 & 28 Notes

CHAP 26

Indians and the reservation system

1851 treaty at Fort Laramie

1853 – treaty at Fort Atkinson

establishing boundaries for each tribe; attempted to

put tribes in 2 great colonies (to north and south of a

corridor of planned settlements for whites)

Problem is that “tribes” and “chiefs” making

treaties with whites didn’t represent most Indians

Indians’ nomadic life could not be changed to

reservation living

Warfare with Indians

Many Army troops were recent immigrants

1/5 (20%) of US personnel were blacks

Called “Buffalo Soldiers” by Indians

Massacres and brutal attacks occurred

between whites and Indians throughout the

Indian wars by both sides but whites clearly

killed more.

The Massacres

Sand Creek Massacre : Colorado in 1864

400 Indians, who believed they had immunity,

massacred by a militia led by Col. Chivington

1866 massacre at Bozeman Trail in Wyoming

Indians attacked and killed 81 soldiers and

civilians, mutilating the corpses

1874 – Custer attacked 2,500 entrenched Indians

at Little Bighorn River (in Montana) who were led by

Sitting Bull and all 264 soldiers killed

Sitting Bull escapes to Canada

1877 – the Nez Percé rebelled

Led by Chief Joseph on 3-month, 1,700 mile march,

attempting to reach Canada and join with Sitting Bull

Chief Joseph surrendered when he was told the Nez Percé

would be able to return to ancestral lands in Idaho

Nez Percé then forced onto reservation in Kansas where

40% of them die from disease

Apache tribes in Arizona and New Mexico

most difficult to conquer

Apaches led by Geronimo eventually pursued into

Mexico to force a surrender

Battle (Massacre) of Wounded Knee (1890)

Over 200 Indians massacred by US soldiers

Last battle in effort to subdue the Indians

The debate over how to treat the Indians:

Reformers tried to persuade Indians to become

like whites (assimilation)

Hard-liners insisted on forced containment and

brutal punishment

Neither side was respectful of Indian culture

The Buffalo

Population,

1800 – 2000

1887 – The Dawes Act {forced assimilation}

Severalty – ownership of land by individual only

Goal was to destroy tribes and Indian culture

Dissolved tribes as legal entities, ended tribal

ownership of land, individual ownership only

All Indians finally gained citizenship in 1924

DAWES ACT ESSENTIALLY A FAILURE

AND IN 1924 MOVE TO RESTORE

TRIBAL BASIS TO THE INDIANS

(INDIAN REORGANIZATION ACT)

Indian Land Losses, 1850 – 2000

Perhaps no race suffered more in America

Mining in West:

Gold found in California in 1848

1858 – gold and silver found in Colorado Rockies

1859 – Comstock Lode (Nevada): gold and silver

Boom towns would set up and then disappear and

become ghost towns

Corp’s would replace individual prospectors and

machines would replace human speculators

Impact of mining

Mining frontier attracted population

Women ran boardinghouses

and worked as prostitutes

Women vote much earlier in West

Gold & silver finance the Civil War & build

railroads

Silver discoveries made silver issue in US

politics a powerful issue

R.R.’s led to cowboys making the “Long Drive”

Cattle driven north to railroads, & shipped East

from giant cattle yards in Kansas City and Chicago

Journey was about 1,000 miles and Cattle grazed

on open grass on the way north

The end of the independent cattle drives

Fenced off land with barbed wire (1874)

1886 – 1887 – terrible cold winter left

thousands of cattle frozen to death

Long Drives led to the myth of the Cowboy

Farmers settled the West in great numbers

1862 – Homestead Act (Morrill Act)

Gave settlers 160 acres of land if they

improved and worked the land for 5 years

Before C.W. land sold for money for by gov’t;

now land given away to encourage settlement

Problem-land not productive enough and not

enough water so most land ends up in Corp.

hands after farmers abandon it.

Most settlers actually got land from RRs or real

estate agents

Railroads helped bring people to West

Farmers ship crops east, opening up new markets

Advertised to immigrants in Europe to get them to

buy land

Adapting to the dry climate and lack of rain water

“dry farming” technique (frequent shallow

cultivation) used to adapt to dry

environment; leads to Dust Bowl in 1930s

because ground lost all its nutrients

Land rush in Oklahoma (1889)

Federal government opens land for settlement

Some “sooners” go before being authorized to, and

forcibly evicted by the government

– 50,000 settlers dashed for a claim in Oklahoma Territory

and in 1907 Oklahoma made a state

1890 US census official determined the frontier was closed

Impact of the closing of the frontier

Americans recognized that land was not inexhaustible and

Government began setting aside land for national parks

1893 – Frederick Jackson Turner’s essay, “The

Significance of the Frontier in American

History”

Frontier acted as a “safety valve”, allowing

immigrants and poor in cities to move west and

prosper, instead of staying in cities and spreading

discontent (strikes, socialism, rebellion, etc.) as

the poor did in Europe .

Not all historians accept this “safety value”

theory

The Farm Becomes a Factory

Post Civil War through 1870s – high prices for farm

commodities led farmers to expand into “cash” crops

and production farming rather than subsistence

farming

Money made from selling crops would be spent

on goods at general store in town or through mail

order

Large-scale farms become big business:

Worked with banks, railroads,

manufacturers so incurred large debts

Had to buy expensive machinery to farm

(that also greatly increased speed of

harvesting)

Small farmers, driven off land

Frequently blamed railroads, banks,

global markets and Gov’t instead of

their lack of management skills

Many farmers became 1-crop farmers (like

wheat and corn) and heavily in debt

No longer independent; if prices declined

on competitive world market, farmers

would be hurt

1880s – 1890s – farming prices fell because of

foreign competition and over production

Deflation becomes a major problem as money

supply gets tight but interest rates continue to

rise and many farmers lose their land and

become merely tenant farmers

Farmers faced Environmental problems

Grasshoppers (in West) and boll weevils (in South)

Flooding and erosion took away fertile topsoil

Droughts in West in mid 1880s

Farmers also faced Governmental problems

High taxes

Protective tariffs helped Eastern manufacturers

but forced farmers to pay higher prices

Farmers had to sell goods on competitive,

unprotected world market

Farmers faced Corporate problems

Large trusts that made things could raise prices to

very high levels

Middlemen took large cut on needed goods

Grain operators who stored farm products before

sale raised rates whenever they wanted

Railroad charged high rates to ship goods

Grange movement started to solve problems

Organized in 1867 by Oliver H. Kelley

Gave farmers sense of belonging & quickly

became economic tool to combat monetary

problems

Grangers get states to help them

State laws passed to regulate R.R. rates and

fees from grain elevators and warehouses

State laws overturned by Supreme Court

Wabash v. Illinois (1886) – states had no

power to regulate interstate commerce;

only Congress could do that

Grange movement faded as laws stricken

Farmers’ Alliance

Organized late 1870s to socialize and work

together to fight R.R. and manufacturers

Failed when landless tenant farmers,

sharecroppers, and farm workers; excluded

blacks in South because of white racism

Failure leads to the Populist Movement

Populist (People’s) Party Platform:

Nationalize railroads, telephone, telegraph

Graduated Federal income tax

Government loan’s to farmers using crops

stored in government-owned warehouses;

crops held until prices rose

Free, unlimited coinage of silver

Weak in South (because of racial divide), but

very strong in West

1893 – panic and depression hurt farmers and

workers, making their arguments even

stronger

Crusaders for Populism

William Hope Harvey

advocating free silver

Ignatius Donnelly

Elected congressman from Minnesota

Mary Elizabeth (“Mary Yellin’”) Lease

Kansans should raise “less corn and more hell”

1894 – Jacob S. Coxey and his “army” marched

from Ohio to Washington, DC demanding gov’t

work programs

1894 – Pullman Strike

Pullman Company (built luxury RR cars) cut wages

by 1/3 but did not cut rent prices

R.R. workers, led by Eugene V. Debs, go on strike

Pres. Cleveland orders troops to break up strike

because “interferes with delivery of U. S. mail”.

Debs does 6 months in jail and becomes socialist

Populists argue big business using courts to their

advantage at expense of the “little guy”

McKinley (gold) vs. Bryan (silver)

Election of 1896 centered on whether to

maintain gold or silver as currency standard

Mark Hanna leads push to get McKinley the

Republican nomination

Believes in “trickle down” theory and protective

tariffs as well as gold standard

Democrats refuse to nominate Cleveland at their

convention – blame him for Panic of 1893

William Jennings Bryan’s Cross of Gold

speech (fighting for silver to bring inflation)

Bryan nominated on platform of unlimited

coinage of silver (16 to 1 ratio, instead of market

32 to 1)

Populists

Endorsed Bryan (because of his support for

coinage of silver) so lose identity as 3rd party

“You shall not

press down

upon the brow

of labor this

crown of thorns,

you shall not

crucify mankind

upon a cross of

gold.”

Widespread fear of Bryan unites Republicans

(savings would be devalued if silver coined)

Rich donate huge amounts to McKinley ($16

million total, to Bryan’s $1 million)

Fear and dirty tricks used: industrial

workers told that orders, jobs, pay might be

taken away if Bryan won

McKinley wins close popular vote with

heavy majority in large East Coast cities

Importance of the 1896 election

Eastern workers did not unite with debtor

farmers against big business

Big business, fiscal conservatives,

middle-class values won

Political power shifted from rural

areas to cities

Republicans dominated politics for next 36

years (except for 1912 – 1920)

Parties weakened, less voter participation in

elections, regulation of industry and worker

welfare became important issues

McKinley and the tariff issue

Business wants higher tariff because tariffs not

high enough to cover gov’t expenses (want budget

balanced)

Dingley Tariff Bill (1897) passed making

average tariff rate over 40%

Prosperity returned to US erasing gold and

silver issue

1900 – Gold Standard Act passed

All paper money redeemable in gold

New gold discoveries and new processes put

enough money into economy to introduce

inflation and help debtors

CHAP 28

Where did these Progressive critics come from?

Socialists

Many were European immigrants

Social gospel movement

Used religion to demand better for urban poor

Feminists

Demanded suffrage along with other reforms

Led by Jane Addams (Chicago) who worked to

improve conditions for urban poor

T.R. Referred to them as Muckrakers

Most focused on big business and need for

government to right the wrongs of society:

Jacob Riis (“How the Other Half Lives”)

Lincoln Steffens (“Shame of the cities”)

Ida M. Tarbell (“Mother of Trusts-Standard Oil)

Upton Sinclair (“The Jungle”- Meat Companies)

They sought social change but primarily

highlighted the bad without clear ideas to fix it.

What Progressives Wanted

End to Urban Slums

End to Machine Politics

Direct Election of Senators

Regulation of Trusts

Suffrage for Women

A Federal Income Tax

Child Labor Laws / Limit on Working Hours

Improve Life of Poor & stop Socialism

Lochner v. New York

(1905)

- overturned a N. Y. law

establishing a 10-hour

workday for bakers

No special interest to

protect workers

present to void private

party contract rights

In 1917 Court will

finally change its views

Triangle

Shirtwaist

Fire

(1911)

146 Die

-----

Brings calls

for reforms

Young Women’s Bodies Lie on the Street Below

Gradual change from unregulated capitalism

to belief that employers and government had

responsibility to workers and society

Many states passed tougher laws regulating

sweatshops (after the Triangle fire)

Worker’s compensations laws gave injured

workers insurance for lost income

States begin to limit alcohol sales but cities will

remain “wet” due to large immigrant populations

Prohibition on Eve of the 18th Amendment, 1919

Roosevelt decided to protect “public interest”

Demanded “Square Deal” for public

Three C’s:

control of corporations,

consumer protection,

conservation of natural resources

He Believed That Government, and Not Big

Business, Should Rule the Country

TR’s Square Deal for Labor

1902 coal strike in Pennsylvania

Workers exploited in dangerous mines

Workers demanded 20% increase in

pay and working day of 9 hour

Mine owners refused arbitration or

negotiation

Roosevelt’s actions

Realizes importance of coal for fuel

Sided with workers, in part because of

the arrogance of the mine owners

Threatened to seize and operate mines

with federal troops

First time government had

threatened owners, instead of

workers, with violence

Roosevelt’s good and bad trusts

Realized can’t eliminate all trusts

Good trusts had a public conscience;

bad trusts greedy for $ and power

Only against bad trusts

Use threat of breakup to force

corporations to accept gov’t regulation

Good

vs.

Bad

Trusts

Northern Securities Case (1904)

Railroad company organized by JP Morgan

to monopolize railroads in Northwest

1902 - Roosevelt orders breakup of

Northern Securities & they sue

1904 - Northern Securities decision

Supreme Court upheld Roosevelt’s order,

greatly strengthening his reputation as

trust buster

But in

truth Taft

“busted”

more

trusts

Meat Inspection Act (1906) – Brought about because

of “The Jungle” by Upton Sinclair

Meat shipped over state lines subject to federal

inspection throughout entire process

Used by large packing houses to drive smaller

competitors out of business

Large packing houses got US approval for their

meat - increase shipments to Europe

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Prevented adulteration and mislabeling

Roosevelt energized conservation movement

at federal level

Lover of outdoors - hunter, naturalist, rancher

Using up natural resources appalled him

Set aside 125 million acres of forests, 3 times what

his predecessors had done

Set aside acres of coal and water resources

Roosevelt easily re-elected in 1904

Called more strongly for Progressive measures

Taxing income, protecting income, regulating corporations

Announced he would not run for a 3rd term in 1908 during

1904 election and he would later regret the decision

1907 - short panic hit Wall Street

Included runs on banks, suicides, and criminal

proceedings against speculators

Roosevelt blamed by business leaders

Panic of 1907 led to currency reforms

Aldrich-Vreeland Act (1908)

Authorized national banks to issue

currency backed by collateral

Eventually will lead to Federal Reserve

Act (1913) and understanding that

Government must be in charge of the

money supply but that it must be kept

separate from fiscal policy.

Roosevelt decides not to run in 1908

Picks his secretary of war William Howard Taft

to be his successor

used his power and control of the Republican party to

push Taft’s nomination through

Roosevelt

Hands

“My

Policies”

Off to Taft

The Election of 1908: Taft vs. Bryan

Assessing Roosevelt’s Presidency

He usually chose the middle road

Acts to soften the worst abuses of capitalism, but

effectively preserved capitalism and allowed the

system to flourish

Able to head off move towards socialism

Most important and lasting contribution -

preservation of natural resources - he chose the

middle road between preservationists and those

who wanted to rape the land of all its resources

T.R. enlarged the power and prestige of the

presidential office

used the power of publicity (the “bully pulpit”)

to get his way

Helped guide progressive movement and later

liberal reforms

Square Deal was forerunner of the later New

Deal from FDR

Opened Americans’ eyes to the fact that they

shared the world with other countries

As a great power, the USA had responsibilities

and ambitions that could not be escaped

Taft’s weaknesses:

Lacked Roosevelt’s strong political leadership skills

or his love of a good fight

Became passive when dealing with Congress

Not a good judge of public opinion and

frequently misspoke in public

Too conservative to make Progressives in his

party happy

Taft’s plan for foreign policy replaced Roosevelt’s

“big stick” policy with “dollar diplomacy”

US investors would pour money into

areas of strategic concern for the US -

especially the Far East and Latin

America around the Panama Canal

US investors thereby block out rival

investors from foreign countries while

bringing profit to themselves and USA

Dollar diplomacy in Latin America

US refused to allow European investment in

Latin America (cite Monroe Doctrine)

Taft urged US investors to pump money

into Latin America to keep out foreign funds

To protect investments US forces frequently

used to put down protests and revolutions

For example, in 1912 a force of 2,500 US

marines landed in Nicaragua to put down

a revolution, and stayed 13 years

The United States in the Caribbean

1911 - Supreme Court ordered breakup

of Standard Oil Company because held to

violate the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act

Court handed down its “rule of reason”

which held that only combinations that

“unreasonably” restrained trade were

illegal; this rule greatly weakened the

government’s strength against other trusts

Taft Splits the Republican Party

Progressive wing wanted to lower protective

tariff (which they called the “Mother of

Trusts” because of it protected big business)

Taft says okay but ends up actually raising

tariff and loses support of progressives

Also splits the party on issue of Conservation

Taft Makes a Mess

February 1912 - Roosevelt, angry with Taft for

apparent rejection of Progressivism (“my

policies”), decided to fight for Republican

nomination

He reasoned that the third-term tradition applied

to 3 consecutive elective terms

“My hat is in the ring!”

AT THE CONVENTION HE NARROWLY LOSES AND

DECIDES TO RUN ON THIRD PARTY TICKET

Roosevelt the Take-Back Giver