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AP Psychology 2nd 9 Weeks Midterm
Sensation and Perception
Sensation: Process of receiving sensory input from the environment.
Perception: Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
Bottom-Up Processing: Analysis starting with sensory input and building to perception.
Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge and experience to interpret sensory input.
Selective Attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.
Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere.
Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in the environment.
Transduction: Conversion of sensory energy into neural signals.
Psychophysics: Study of relationships between stimuli and sensory experience.
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.
Signal Detection Theory: Predicts when stimuli are detected amid background noise.
Subliminal: Below the threshold of conscious awareness.
Priming: Activation of associations, affecting perception or response.
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): Minimum difference detectable between stimuli.
Weber’s Law: To perceive a difference, stimuli must differ by a constant proportion.
Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant stimulation.
Perceptual Set: Mental predisposition to perceive one thing over another.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP): Controversial claim of perception beyond sensory input.
Parapsychology: Study of paranormal phenomena.
Wavelength: Distance between peaks of light or sound waves.
Hue: Color determined by wavelength of light.
Intensity: Brightness or loudness determined by wave amplitude.
Pupil: Adjustable opening in the eye controlling light entry.
Iris: Colored part of the eye controlling pupil size.
Lens: Changes shape to focus images on the retina.
Retina: Contains receptor cells for vision.
Accommodation: Eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects.
Rods: Retinal receptors detecting black, white, and gray; work in dim light.
Cones: Retinal receptors for color and detail in bright light.
Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain.
Blind Spot: Area where optic nerve leaves the eye, with no receptor cells.
Fovea: Central focus area of the retina with many cones.
Feature Detectors: Brain cells responding to specific visual features.
Parallel Processing: Simultaneous processing of different visual information.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: Retina has three color receptors (red, green, blue).
Opponent-Process Theory: Opposing retinal processes enable color vision.
Gestalt: Emphasizes perceiving whole forms rather than individual parts.
Figure-Ground: Distinguishing objects from their background.
Grouping: Organizing stimuli into meaningful groups.
Depth Perception: Ability to perceive three dimensions.
Visual Cliff: Apparatus testing depth perception in infants and animals.
Binocular Cues: Depth cues requiring both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity).
Retinal Disparity: Difference between images from each eye, used for depth perception.
Monocular Cues: Depth cues using one eye (e.g., relative size, interposition).
Phi Phenomenon: Perception of motion when lights blink on/off in succession.
Perceptual Constancy: Perceiving objects as unchanging despite differences in viewing conditions.
Color Constancy: Perception of consistent color under varying lighting.
Perceptual Adaptation: Adjusting to altered sensory input.
Audition: Sense of hearing.
Frequency: Number of sound wave cycles per second, determining pitch.
Pitch: Highness or lowness of a sound, based on frequency.
Middle Ear: Chamber between the eardrum and cochlea, containing three small bones.
Cochlea: Spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear for sound processing.
Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Damage to cochlea's receptor cells or auditory nerves.
Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to the mechanical system conducting sound waves.
Cochlear Implant: Device converting sounds into electrical signals for hearing.
Place Theory: Links pitch perception to stimulation location on the cochlea.
Frequency Theory: Links pitch perception to frequency of auditory nerve impulses.
Gate-Control Theory: Spinal cord has a "gate" that blocks or allows pain signals.
Kinesthesia: Sense of body position and movement.
Vestibular Sense: Sense of balance, based on head movement and position.
Sensory Interaction: One sense influences another (e.g., taste and smell).
Embodied Cognition: Interaction of body sensations and cognitive processes.
Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind
Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment.
Hypnosis: Social interaction where one person suggests to another changes in perception, feeling, thought, or behavior.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion made during hypnosis to be carried out afterward.
Dissociation: A split in consciousness allowing simultaneous thoughts or behaviors.
Circadian Rhythm: Biological clock regulating bodily rhythms on a 24-hour cycle.
REM Sleep: Sleep stage with vivid dreams and rapid eye movements; body is paralyzed but brain is active.
Alpha Waves: Slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Sleep: Periodic, natural loss of consciousness.
Hallucinations: False sensory experiences without external stimuli.
Delta Waves: Large, slow brain waves during deep sleep.
NREM Sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep encompassing all sleep stages except REM.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Brain structure regulating circadian rhythms using light signals.
Insomnia: Recurring difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep attacks directly into REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep leading to awakenings.
Night Terrors: High arousal and fear during NREM-3 sleep, not remembered upon waking.
Dream: Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts during sleep.
Manifest Content: Freudian concept of a dream’s apparent storyline.
Latent Content: Freudian concept of a dream’s underlying meaning.
REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep after deprivation.
Drugs and Consciousness
Substance Use Disorder: Continued substance use despite significant life disruption.
Psychoactive Drug: Chemical substance altering perception and mood.
Tolerance: Needing increased doses for the same effect.
Addiction: Compulsive craving and use of a substance.
Withdrawal: Discomfort after stopping an addictive drug.
Depressants: Drugs (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates, opiates) reducing neural activity and slowing body functions.
Alcohol Use Disorder: Alcohol use leading to tolerance, withdrawal, and harmful consequences.
Barbiturates: Depressants reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
Opiates: Depress neural activity and reduce pain (e.g., morphine, heroin).
Stimulants: Drugs (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, cocaine) increasing neural activity and energy.
Amphetamines: Stimulants boosting mood and energy.
Nicotine: Addictive drug in tobacco.
Cocaine: Stimulant producing temporary euphoria.
Methamphetamine: Stimulant with long-lasting effects on mood and energy.
Ecstasy (MDMA): Stimulant and hallucinogen promoting social connection.
Hallucinogens: Drugs (e.g., LSD) distorting perception.
LSD: Hallucinogen producing vivid hallucinations.
Near-Death Experience: Altered consciousness after close brush with death.
THC: Active ingredient in marijuana producing mild hallucinations.
Learning
Learning: Process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together (classical or operant conditioning).
Stimulus: Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Cognitive Learning: Acquiring information through observation or language.
Classical Conditioning: Learning in which one links two or more stimuli to anticipate events (Pavlov).
Behaviorism: View that psychology should be an objective science, studying behavior without mental processes.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus eliciting no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus triggering a natural response.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a response.
Acquisition: Initial stage of conditioning when one links stimuli to produce a response.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Conditioning in which a new stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned stimulus.
Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished response after a pause.
Generalization: Tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke a response.
Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimuli and irrelevant stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning: Learning where behavior is influenced by consequences (Skinner).
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely (Thorndike).
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus to study operant conditioning with animals.
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a behavior.
Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired result.
Discriminative Stimulus: Stimulus eliciting a response after association with reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by presenting a positive stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
Primary Reinforcer: Innately satisfying stimuli (e.g., food, water).
Conditioned Reinforcer: Stimulus gaining power through association with primary reinforcer (e.g., money).
Reinforcement Schedule: Pattern defining how often a behavior is reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a response every time it occurs.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a response only part of the time, leading to slower extinction.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforces behavior after a set number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforces behavior after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforces behavior after a set time period.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforces behavior after an unpredictable time period.
Punishment: Event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Cognitive Processes and Learning
Cognitive Map: Mental representation of an environment.
Latent Learning: Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Insight: Sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Intrinsic Motivation: Desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: Desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishment.
Coping: Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral strategies.
Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing stress directly by solving the problem.
Emotion-Focused Coping: Avoiding or ignoring a stressor to manage emotional responses.
Learned Helplessness: Passive resignation when unable to avoid repeated negative events.
External Locus of Control: Belief that external factors determine fate.
Internal Locus of Control: Belief that one controls their own fate.
Self-Control: Ability to control impulses and delay gratification.
Observational Learning
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Modeling: Imitating observed behavior.
Mirror Neurons: Brain cells firing during both performing and observing an action.
Prosocial Behavior: Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior.
Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Motivation: A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Instinct: A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.
Drive-Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) motivating an organism to satisfy the need.
Homeostasis: The tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.
Incentive: A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, after which it decreases.
Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, starting with physiological needs and progressing to self-actualization.
Hunger
Glucose: A form of sugar in the blood that provides energy for body tissues. Low levels trigger hunger.
Set Point: The weight an individual’s body attempts to maintain.
Basal Metabolic Rate: The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.
Sexual Motivation
Sexual Response Cycle: Four stages of sexual responding: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Refractory Period: A resting period after orgasm during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.
Sexual Dysfunction: A problem impairing sexual arousal or functioning.
Estrogens: Sex hormones more prominent in females; contribute to female sexual characteristics.
Testosterone: The most important male sex hormone, present in both sexes, but higher in males.
Emotion
Emotion: A response involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.
James-Lange Theory: The theory that emotion is the result of physiological responses to stimuli.
Cannon-Bard Theory: The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.
Two-Factor Theory: Schachter-Singer theory that emotion involves physical arousal and a cognitive label.
Polygraph: A machine used to detect lies by measuring physiological responses.
Facial Feedback Effect: The tendency of facial expressions to influence emotions.
Stress and Health
Health Psychology: A subfield of psychology that focuses on how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Stress: The process by which we perceive and respond to challenging or threatening events.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye’s concept of the body’s response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Tend and Befriend Response: Under stress, people (especially women) may provide support and seek connections.
Psychophysiological Illness: Stress-related physical illnesses, such as hypertension or headaches.
Psychoneuroimmunology: The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system.
Lymphocytes: White blood cells involved in the body’s immune defenses.
Coronary Heart Disease: The clogging of heart vessels, often linked to stress.
Type A: Competitive, hard-driving, and aggressive personality type linked to heart disease.
Type B: Easygoing and relaxed personality type.
People to know:
Learning and Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs, showing how neutral stimuli can trigger conditioned responses (e.g., salivation).
John B. Watson: A behaviorist who conducted the Little Albert experiment, demonstrating that emotional responses can be conditioned.
B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning theory, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior using the Skinner Box.
Edward Thorndike: Created the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to recur.
John Garcia: Conducted studies on taste aversion, challenging the idea that all associations are learned equally in classical conditioning.
Robert Rescorla: Studied classical conditioning and introduced the idea that cognition plays a key role in the learning process, showing that the predictability of a stimulus matters.
Edward Tolman: Proposed the theory of latent learning and cognitive maps, which suggested that rats could learn a maze without any reinforcement.
Albert Bandura: Developed social learning theory, emphasizing observational learning through the Bobo doll experiment, showing how children imitate aggressive behavior.
Motivation and Emotion
Abraham Maslow: Created the hierarchy of needs, where self-actualization is the ultimate goal, with basic needs like food and safety taking precedence.
William Masters: Studied human sexual response and partnered with Virginia Johnson to map the sexual response cycle.
Virginia Johnson: Along with William Masters, conducted groundbreaking research on human sexuality and its physiological processes.
William James: Known for his work on functionalism, he also developed the James-Lange theory of emotion, suggesting emotions are a result of physiological reactions to events.
Stanley Schachter: Co-developed the two-factor theory of emotion, which states that emotions are a result of both physical arousal and cognitive interpretation.
Hans Selye: Proposed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), which explains the body’s response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Learning and Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs, showing how neutral stimuli can trigger conditioned responses (e.g., salivation).
John B. Watson: A behaviorist who conducted the Little Albert experiment, demonstrating that emotional responses can be conditioned.
B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning theory, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior using the Skinner Box.
Edward Thorndike: Created the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to recur.
John Garcia: Conducted studies on taste aversion, challenging the idea that all associations are learned equally in classical conditioning.
Robert Rescorla: Studied classical conditioning and introduced the idea that cognition plays a key role in the learning process, showing that the predictability of a stimulus matters.
Edward Tolman: Proposed the theory of latent learning and cognitive maps, which suggested that rats could learn a maze without any reinforcement.
Albert Bandura: Developed social learning theory, emphasizing observational learning through the Bobo doll experiment, showing how children imitate aggressive behavior.
Motivation and Emotion
Abraham Maslow: Created the hierarchy of needs, where self-actualization is the ultimate goal, with basic needs like food and safety taking precedence.
William Masters: Studied human sexual response and partnered with Virginia Johnson to map the sexual response cycle.
Virginia Johnson: Along with William Masters, conducted groundbreaking research on human sexuality and its physiological processes.
William James: Known for his work on functionalism, he also developed the James-Lange theory of emotion, suggesting emotions are a result of physiological reactions to events.
Stanley Schachter: Co-developed the two-factor theory of emotion, which states that emotions are a result of both physical arousal and cognitive interpretation.
Hans Selye: Proposed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), which explains the body’s response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Sensation and Perception
Gustav Fechner: Founder of psychophysics, he studied the relationship between physical stimuli and their psychological effects, such as sensation thresholds.
Ernst Weber: Developed Weber’s Law, which states that the just noticeable difference (JND) is proportional to the initial stimulus intensity.
David Hubel: Along with Torsten Wiesel, discovered feature detectors in the visual cortex, which respond to specific types of visual stimuli like edges and movement.
Torsten Wiesel: Worked with David Hubel on the discovery of feature detectors and the role of the brain in visual processing.
Consciousness
William James: In relation to consciousness, he described it as a continuous "stream," emphasizing that consciousness is always in flux and cannot be isolated into discrete parts.
Ernest Hilgard: Known for his research on hypnosis and dissociation, Hilgard proposed that hypnosis creates a state of divided consciousness, with a "hidden observer" watching the hypnotized person.
Sigmund Freud: In relation to consciousness, Freud introduced the concept of the unconscious mind, proposing that much of our behavior is influenced by repressed thoughts, desires, and memories.
NoteStudied by 11 peopleNoteStudied by 52 peopleNoteStudied by 48 peopleNoteStudied by 7 peopleNoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 153 people