Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psycholgical needs become active

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When levels are low we feel hunger

estrogens

sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females that by males and contributing to female sex characteristics

testosterone

the most important of the male sex horomones - both males and females have it

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex or the other sex

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterened throughout a species and is unlearned

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feels fat, continues to starve - usually an adolescent female

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

binge-eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compnesatory puring, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

emotion

a response of the whole organism involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange theory

our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard theory

emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

to experience emotion on must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arsousal

facial feedback

the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness

catharsis

emotional release - "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

health psychology

a subfield that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive responses to stress in 3 phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; leading cause of death in North America

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measure several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being to evaluate people's quality of life

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neural level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman - competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman - easygoing, relaxed people

psychophysiological illness

"mind-body illness" - any stress related physical illness

psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

lymphocytes

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system

B lymphocytes

form in bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

T lymphocytes

form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

projection

psycholoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimului designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test - seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

personal control

the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather that group identifications

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts ans actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives - operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

ego

the largely conscious - "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. Ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in way that well realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

superego

represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience)and for future aspirations

psychosexual stages

childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos - Freud

fixation

lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved - Freud

defense mechanisms

the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

regression

defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

reaction formation

defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings

sublimation

defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities

denial

defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potenial

unconditional positive regard

according to Roger's, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question "Who am I?"

trait

a characteristics pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

personality inventory

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to guage a wide range of feelings and behaviors

Minnesota Multiohasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests

empirically derived test

a test (MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including thinking) and their social context

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

obesity

BMI of 30 or higher

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of skills and idea, for control, and for attaining a high standard

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories of personality

view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences, suggesting that early life events shape an individual's behavior and emotional responses throughout their life.

humanistic theories of personality

emphasize the growth potential of "healthy" individuals.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

behavioral approach of personality

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness