APUSH OPTIONAL ORAL EXAM COLD WAR

LO A:  DESCRIBE the foreign policy of the United States during the first ten years of the Cold War from 1945 to 1955 and EXPLAIN WHY the U.S. pursued the foreign policy it did during this time.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms related to the Cold War:

• The National Security Act of 1947 was a pivotal piece of legislation that restructured the U.S. military and intelligence community in response to post-World War II geopolitical realities. It established the National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), reflecting a shift towards a more coordinated approach to national security. The act aimed to enhance U.S. capabilities to respond to perceived threats from the Soviet Union and its allies.

• Voice of America (VOA) was established as a government-funded international radio service that broadcast news and information to audiences around the world, particularly in countries under communist influence. Its purpose was to promote American values, counter Soviet propaganda, and provide an alternative narrative to communist ideologies. VOA played a crucial role in disseminating information during the Cold War, fostering understanding of democratic principles.

• The Truman Doctrine, articulated in 1947 by President Harry S. Truman, was a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy aimed at containing communism. It asserted that the U.S. would support free peoples resisting subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures, specifically targeting Greece and Turkey at that time. This doctrine marked a commitment to intervene globally against communism, setting a precedent for future American involvement in conflicts worldwide.

• The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program, was initiated in 1948 to aid Western Europe’s economic recovery after World War II. The U.S. provided over $12 billion in financial assistance to help rebuild war-torn economies, stabilize governments, and prevent the spread of communism by promoting prosperity and political stability in Europe.

• The Berlin Blockade occurred from June 1948 to May 1949 when the Soviet Union blocked all ground access to West Berlin in an attempt to force Allied powers out of the city. In response, the U.S., along with its allies, organized the Berlin Airlift, supplying West Berlin with food and fuel via air transport for nearly a year. This event highlighted tensions between East and West and solidified U.S. commitment to defending democratic enclaves against Soviet aggression.

• The formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in April 1949 represented a collective defense agreement among Western nations against potential Soviet expansionism. Member states agreed that an attack on one member would be considered an attack on all, thereby creating a unified front against communist threats in Europe.

• NSC 68, drafted in April 1950 by the National Security Council, was a key document outlining U.S. strategy during the Cold War. It called for significant increases in military spending and emphasized containment as central to U.S. foreign policy objectives against communism globally. The report underscored fears about Soviet intentions and advocated for proactive measures rather than reactive responses.

• The Korean War began in June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea with support from China and the Soviet Union. The United States intervened under UN auspices to support South Korea, viewing this conflict as critical to containing communism’s spread in Asia. The war ended in July 1953 with an armistice but no formal peace treaty, leaving Korea divided along ideological lines.

LO B:  DESCRIBE the “Red Scare” that occurred in America during the early years of the Cold War and EXPLAIN HOW the U.S. government sought to contain the actual and perceived threat of communist sympathizers in America during this time.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms/people related to attempts to stop/contain communism in the U.S.:

The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was a committee of the U.S. House of Representatives established in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities by private citizens, public employees, and organizations suspected of having communist ties. It played a significant role during the Red Scare, particularly in the late 1940s and 1950s.

Executive Order 9835 was signed by President Harry S. Truman on March 21, 1947. It established a loyalty program for federal employees to ensure that they were not members of the Communist Party or involved in any subversive activities. This order led to investigations and dismissals of government workers deemed disloyal.

McCarthyism refers to the period in the early 1950s characterized by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s aggressive campaign against alleged communists in the U.S. government and other institutions. It involved intense scrutiny, accusations without proper evidence, and widespread fear of communist infiltration, leading to numerous individuals being blacklisted or losing their jobs.

LO C:  DESCRIBE the major policies/events of the Cold War that occurred between 1955 and 1961 and EXPLAIN HOW they were eventually resolved.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms associated with President Eisenhower’s “New Look” Policy:

• Rollback refers to a strategy aimed at not just containing communism but actively seeking to eliminate it from regions where it had already taken hold. This approach suggested that the United States should take aggressive actions to push back against Soviet influence and support anti-communist movements in various countries. The idea was that through military intervention or support for insurgencies, the U.S. could reverse the gains made by communist forces rather than merely preventing their spread.

• Massive Retaliation is a doctrine that was articulated by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles under Eisenhower’s administration. It posited that any act of aggression by a potential adversary, particularly the Soviet Union, would be met with an overwhelming nuclear response. This strategy aimed to deter Soviet aggression by making it clear that any attack on U.S. interests would result in catastrophic consequences, thereby reducing the likelihood of conventional warfare and encouraging reliance on nuclear arsenals as a primary means of defense.

• Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) is a military doctrine that emerged during the Cold War, which held that both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other completely in the event of a nuclear conflict. The premise behind MAD was that this capability would deter both sides from initiating a nuclear war since such an action would lead to total annihilation for both parties involved. This concept reinforced the importance of maintaining a credible second-strike capability and contributed to strategic stability during tense periods of the Cold War.

• Brinksmanship is a foreign policy strategy characterized by pushing dangerous events to the brink of disaster in order to achieve favorable outcomes through negotiation or coercion. Under Eisenhower’s administration, this approach involved taking calculated risks in international relations, particularly regarding nuclear threats, with the belief that demonstrating willingness to escalate conflicts could compel adversaries to back down. The Cuban Missile Crisis is often cited as an example where brinksmanship played a critical role in U.S.-Soviet relations.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms regarding U.S.–Soviet relations during Eisenhower’s presidency: 

• Peaceful Coexistence was a foreign policy concept that emerged during the Cold War, particularly emphasized during the leadership of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. It proposed that the United States and the Soviet Union could coexist without resorting to direct military conflict, despite their ideological differences. This policy aimed to reduce tensions and promote diplomatic engagement while allowing both superpowers to pursue their respective interests globally. Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, this approach was cautiously accepted, leading to a series of diplomatic initiatives, including arms control discussions and cultural exchanges.

• The Hungarian Uprising of 1956 was a nationwide revolt against the Soviet-imposed policies in Hungary. It began on October 23, 1956, when students and workers demanded political reform and greater independence from Soviet control. The uprising initially succeeded in overthrowing the government and establishing a new regime that sought to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. However, on November 4, 1956, the Soviet Union launched a military intervention to suppress the uprising, resulting in thousands of deaths and widespread repression. The U.S. response was limited; while it condemned Soviet actions, it did not intervene militarily due to concerns about escalating tensions into a broader conflict.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms related to the Cold War: 

• The term Third World originated during the Cold War to describe countries that were not aligned with either NATO (the “First World”) or the Communist Bloc (the “Second World”). This included many nations in Africa, Latin America, Asia, and parts of the Middle East that were newly independent or still developing economically and politically. The term has evolved over time but originally referred to nations seeking non-alignment or those caught in proxy conflicts between superpowers.

• Proxy Wars refer to conflicts where two opposing countries support combatants that serve their interests instead of waging war directly against each other. During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in numerous proxy wars across various regions as they sought to expand their influence without triggering direct military confrontation. Examples include conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and various African nations where local factions received support from one superpower or another.

Briefly DESCRIBE the role the Central Intelligence Agency played during the Cold War in the following places: 

• In Iran, the CIA played a crucial role in orchestrating Operation Ajax in 1953, which resulted in the overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh. Mossadegh had nationalized Iran’s oil industry, which threatened Western oil interests. The CIA collaborated with British intelligence to engineer a coup d’état that reinstated Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as ruler. This operation significantly impacted U.S.-Iran relations for decades and contributed to anti-American sentiment among Iranians.

• In Guatemala, the CIA executed Operation PBSUCCESS in 1954 aimed at overthrowing democratically elected President Jacobo Árbenz. His land reforms threatened American business interests—particularly those of United Fruit Company—leading to fears of communist influence in Central America. The CIA supported a coup that resulted in Árbenz’s resignation and established a military dictatorship under Carlos Castillo Armas. This intervention set off decades of civil unrest and violence within Guatemala.

Briefly DESCRIBE the following key terms related to President Eisenhower’s foreign policy in the Middle East and Southeast Asia during the Cold War:

• The Suez Canal Crisis occurred in 1956 when Egypt’s President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests. In response, Britain, France, and Israel launched a military intervention to regain control of the canal. The crisis highlighted the declining influence of European powers in the Middle East and prompted a strong reaction from the United States and the Soviet Union. President Dwight D. Eisenhower opposed the invasion, fearing it would escalate tensions with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Ultimately, international pressure led to a withdrawal of invading forces, marking a significant moment in U.S. foreign policy as it demonstrated America’s commitment to preventing colonialism and promoting stability in the region.

• The Eisenhower Doctrine, announced in 1957, was a policy aimed at containing communism in the Middle East. It stated that the United States would provide military and economic assistance to any Middle Eastern country that requested help against armed aggression from communist countries. This doctrine was a response to perceived threats from Soviet influence in the region and aimed to strengthen U.S. alliances while countering Soviet expansionism.

• Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnamese revolutionary leader who played a crucial role in Vietnam’s struggle for independence from French colonial rule. After World War II, he became a prominent figure in leading North Vietnam against both French colonial forces and later American involvement during the Vietnam War. His leadership symbolized nationalist aspirations and communist ideology in Southeast Asia, significantly influencing U.S. foreign policy decisions regarding containment strategies in Vietnam.

• The Domino Theory was a key concept during the Cold War that suggested if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow suit like a row of falling dominoes. This theory underpinned U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia, particularly regarding Vietnam, as American leaders believed that failing to stop communism there would lead to widespread regional instability and further spread of communism throughout Asia.

• Ngo Dinh Diem was the first President of South Vietnam from 1955 until his assassination in 1963. He was supported by the United States as an anti-communist leader but faced criticism for his authoritarian regime and failure to gain popular support among Vietnamese citizens. His government struggled with corruption and repression, which ultimately contributed to growing unrest and opposition within South Vietnam.

Briefly DESCRIBE the U-2 Spy plane Incident and EXPLAIN HOW it affected U.S.–Soviet relations in 1960:  

The U-2 Spy Plane Incident occurred on May 1, 1960, when an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft piloted by Francis Gary Powers was shot down over Soviet airspace. The incident took place just before a scheduled summit between President Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev aimed at easing Cold War tensions. Initially, the U.S. government attempted to cover up its espionage activities by claiming that it had lost an experimental weather plane; however, when Khrushchev presented evidence of Powers’ capture along with photographs taken during his flight showing military installations across the USSR, this deception failed.

The fallout from this incident severely strained U.S.-Soviet relations at a critical moment when diplomatic efforts were underway for nuclear disarmament discussions. It not only embarrassed Eisenhower’s administration but also heightened distrust between both superpowers, leading Khrushchev to walk out of the Paris Summit later that month.