Lecture_13

Test 2 Review

How to Study

• Understand concepts from lectures, textbook readings, and assignments; apply them effectively.

• Simply re-reading notes/textbook is insufficient.

• Emphasize practice retrieval:

  • Draw concept maps from memory to visualize connections.

  • Create your own examples of concepts to solidify understanding.

  • Engage with practice questions from lecture slides, Wooclap, and textbook.

  • Make flashcards for key concepts and quiz yourself.

  • Develop test questions to deepen comprehension (consider swapping with classmates).

Topics Overview

Claims Evaluation

• Identify frequency, association, and causal claims.

• Methods for behavior description:

  • Self-reports.

  • Observational studies.

  • Case studies.

  • Archival data.

• Types of self-report questions and threats to construct validity in surveys.

Survey Development

• Learn how to develop surveys.

• Evaluate reliability and validity of surveys.

• Know when to use interviews vs. self-reports:

  • Types of interviews available.

Observational Studies

• Types and their pros/cons.

• Threats to construct validity in observational studies.

• Preventing observer bias and effects.

• Avoiding behavioral reactivity.

• Evaluating reliability of observational measures.

• Understand random vs. nonrandom sampling methods and challenges.

Correlational Studies

• Identifying bivariate correlational designs.

• Recognize predictors vs. outcomes:

  • Evaluate the construct and external validity of correlational studies.

  • Know continuous vs. categorical variables.

• Appropriate statistical approaches for correlational studies.

• Criteria for establishing internal validity and causation.

Sampling Methods

• Probability Sampling Techniques:

  • Simple random sample.

  • Stratified random sample.

  • Systematic sample.

• Non-probability sampling techniques lead to biases:

  • Purposive, cluster, multistage, quota, and snowball sampling.

• Probability sampling ensures random selection, producing representative samples.

Important Concepts

• Remember: Correlation does NOT imply causation!

Causation Criteria (Figure 8.14)

To establish causation between variable A and B:

1. Covariance: Confirm they are correlated.

2. Temporal precedence: Determine which variable occurred first.

3. Internal validity: Examine the influence of any third variables that could misrepresent the relationship.

Statistical Validity

• Evaluate the strength of the relationship:

  • Precision of the estimate.

  • Replication of results.

  • Consider external factors affecting correlation.

Factors Affecting Correlations

1. Outliers.

2. Sample size.

3. Curvilinearity.

4. Restriction of range.

5. Reliability issues.

6. Shared method variance.

Practice Identifying Research Claims

• Example claims:

  1. Lower academic performance in online classes vs. in-person classes (Causal claim).

  2. Socially anxious individuals avoid daily social interactions (Association claim).

  3. Politicians exhibit higher narcissism (Association claim).

  4. Permissive parenting influences self-discipline (Causal claim).

Case Study Example

• A professor studies test performance between in-person and online classes:

  1. Claim being tested: Causal claim.

  2. Type of variable (test performance): Dependent variable.

  3. Scale of measurement: Ratio.

  4. Measurement type: Observational.

  5. Sampling method: Simple random sampling.

  6. Statistical test type: T-test.

Couple Conflict Study Summary

• Researcher investigates Gottman’s “Four Horsemen”:

  1. Claim type: Frequency claim.

  2. Study type: Structured observation.

  3. Behavior scale: Nominal.

Study Validity

• Research on avoidant attachment and trust:

  • Identify statistical test: Correlation.

  • Results indicate a strong negative relationship between avoidant attachment and trust.

  • Temporal precedence not established: internal validity issues prevent causal implications.

Important Reminders for Test Day

• Bring a pencil, eraser, and Carleton ID.

• Arrive on time (by 1:00 pm).

• Pack away all materials and turn off electronic devices.

• Follow instructions for test submission carefully (name, student number, and version number on Scantron).

Practice Questions Overview

• Engage with Wooclap for additional participation and understanding.