PSYC101-fall2024-AB3-FinalRev_1_

PSYC 101 Final Review Overview

• This document highlights key ideas discussed in lecture, which may overlap with textbook content.

• Focus on defining terms, explaining concepts, and providing examples as needed.

Learning

• Definition of Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

• Role of Culture in Learning: Cultural background influences learning styles and interpretation.

• Sensitization and Habituation: Sensitization is an increase in reaction to repeated stimulus; habituation is a decrease in response to repeated stimulus.

• Behaviourism and Key Features: Focuses on observable behavior. Key concepts include:

  • Classical Conditioning:

    • Basic components: Unconditioned stimulus/response, conditioned stimulus/response.

    • Key principles: Acquisition, extinction, generalization, discrimination.

    • Extinction: Conditioned reactions become weaker over time.

    • Therapeutic applications: Exposure therapy for phobias.

  • Operant Conditioning:

    • Definition: Learning through consequences of behaviour.

    • Role of reinforcement (positive/negative) and punishment.

    • Types of Reinforcers: Primary and secondary.

    • Reinforcement schedules: Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval (each with strengths/weaknesses).

    • Applications: Behavior modification in various settings.

• Role of Biology in Learning: Biological factors can influence learning processes (e.g., brain structures, neurotransmitters).= hippocampus plays a role in long-term memory processes.

• Role of Cognition in Learning: Cognitive processes affect how information is acquired and utilized.

• Observational Learning:

  • Definition: Learning by observing others.

  • Imitation and social learning: Kids learn behaviours by watching adults.

  • Vocal learning: Important for language development and communication among species.

  • ex: bobo doll also relates to social observational theory.

Memory

• Definition of Memory: The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

• Modal Model of Memory: Composed of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Types of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (declarative) versus implicit (non-declarative) memory.

• Influences on Encoding: Factors that enhance or impede the ability to encode information (e.g., attention, emotional state).

• How Memories are Stored: Various pathways and methods for storing information within the brain.

• Influences on Retrieving Information: Context, cues, and retrieval success can vary.

• Flashbulb Memories: Highly detailed and vivid memories of significant events, often tied to emotional responses.

• Theories of Forgetting: Include decay theory, interference theory (proactive & retroactive).

• Types of Amnesia:

  • Retrograde: Loss of past memories.

  • Anterograde: Inability to form new memories.

• Biology of Forgetting:

  • Hippocampus: Critical for forming new long-term memories.

  • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Language

• Definition of Language: A system of symbols and rules used for communication.

• Mental Representation: The way information is stored and processed in the brain.

• Evolutionary Origin of Language: The development and adaptation of language throughout human history.

• Properties and Structure of Language:

  • Five Key Properties: Productivity, discreteness, duality of patterning, cultural transmission, and arbitrariness.

  • Surface vs. Deep Structure: Distinction between literal meaning and underlying meaning.

  • Components of Language: Phonetics, syntax, semantics, pragmatic elements.

  • Hierarchical Nature: Language is structured in levels (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).

• Bottom-up vs. Top-down Processing: Bottom-up uses incoming data; top-down involves existing knowledge.

Thought

• Types of Thought:

  • Propositions: Declarative statements.

  • Imagery: Mental visuals.

  • Concepts: Mental categories for objects and ideas.

• Types of Reasoning:

  • Deductive: General to specific.

  • Inductive: Specific to general.

• Factors Affecting Reasoning: Cognitive biases and heuristics can impact reasoning outcomes.

• Dual Coding Theory: Information is better retained when both verbal and visual forms are used.

• Brain-Computer Interfaces:

  • Definition: Systems that interpret brain activity for direct communication with external devices.

  • Examples: Applications in prosthetics and communication for individuals with disabilities.

  • Significance: Enhances understanding of thought and behavior.

Circadian Rhythms and Sleep

• Definition of Circadian Rhythm: Biological processes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle.

• Biology of Circadian Rhythms:

  • Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): The brain's master clock regulating rhythms.

  • Zeitgeber: External cues (e.g., light) affecting rhythms.

  • Entrainment: The process of synchronizing biological rhythms to an external environment.

  • Pathway from Eye to SCN: Photoreceptors send light information to the SCN.

• Free-Running Circadian Rhythms: Natural rhythms in the absence of external cues (implications for sleep-wake cycles).

• Chronotype: Individual variations in sleep-wake preferences influenced by genetics and lifestyle.

• Methods for Studying Sleep: Polysomnography, self-reports, and behavioral observations.

• Sleep Stages:

  • Neural “signatures”: Brain wave patterns associated with each stage (e.g., delta waves in deep sleep).

  • Behavioral correlates: Changes in responsiveness and arousal levels during different stages of sleep.

• Slow-wave vs. REM Sleep: Slow-wave sleep is restorative; REM is associated with dreaming.

• Sleep Cycles: Patterns of sleep through the night and changes throughout the lifespan.

• Effects of Sleep Deprivation: Can impact cognitive function, mood, and physical health.

• Reasons We Sleep (4):

  • Restoration: Body and brain repair processes.

  • Memory consolidation: Sleep helps integrate learning and memories.

  • Energy conservation: Reduces energy needs during inactive periods.

  • Brain plasticity: Essential for development and learning.

• Sleep Disorders:

  • Insomnia: Definition, prevalence, and treatment options.

  • Narcolepsy: Chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness.

  • REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Individuals physically act out their dreams.

  • Note: Other disorders covered in the textbook.

Consciousness and Drugs

• Definition of Consciousness: Awareness of self and surroundings.

• Key Properties: Subjective experience, varying levels of awareness.

• Psychodynamic vs. Cognitive Views: Differences in understanding consciousness and unconscious processes.

• Role of Attention in Consciousness: Focus determines what enters consciousness.

• Measuring Consciousness: Methods include:

  • Self-report: Subjective accounts from individuals.

  • Neuroimaging: Tools to visualize brain activity.

  • Behavioral measures: Observable behaviors indicating consciousness levels.

• Biology of Consciousness:

  • Role of Neural Networks: Interconnected neurons responsible for processing information.

  • Modular Brain/Mind: Different brain regions serve specific cognitive functions.

• Biochemistry of Drug Effects:

  • Neurotransmitters and receptors: Key players in the functioning of the nervous system.

  • Agonist Drugs: Define and explore their effects (mimicking neurotransmitters, blocking reuptake, etc.).

  • Antagonist Drugs: Define and explore their effects (blocking receptors, inhibiting effects of neurotransmitters).

• Drug Tolerance: The reduced response to drugs over time due to compensatory mechanisms.

• Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms resulting from discontinuation of a drug, related to tolerance.

• Role of Learning in Tolerance: Conditioning can influence tolerance and withdrawal symptoms.

• Classes of Drugs: General effects and specific examples:

  • Depressants: Decrease neural activity (e.g., alcohol).

  • Stimulants: Increase neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

  • Hallucinogens: Alter perceptions (e.g., LSD).

• Behavior in a Social Context:

  • Advantages of being a social species include collaboration and survival benefits.

Attributions

• Types of Attributions: Internal vs. external. Understanding behavior through different lenses.

• Criteria for Attributions: Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overemphasize personal traits in others’ behaviors.

• Self-Serving Bias: Favoring internal attributions for successes and external for failures.

• Primacy and Recency Effects in Judgments: The order of information presented impacts perception and memory.

• Role of Schema and Mental Sets:

  • Expectations shape interpretations and judgments.

  • Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs about a group.

  • Self-fulfilling Prophecies: Expectations that influence outcomes.

Attitudes and Social Influence

• Definition of Attitudes: Evaluative judgments (positive or negative) about objects, people, or ideas.

• Theory of Planned Behavior: Intention is influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes, leading to attitude change.

• Self-Justification: Rationalizing one's behavior to maintain self-consistency.

• Social Facilitation Effect: Presence of others enhances performance on tasks that are simple or well-learned.

• Social Norms and Social Roles:

  • Define: Shared expectations about behavior in specific contexts.

  • Examples: Gender roles, professional responsibilities.

  • Benefits/Drawbacks: Social cohesion vs. conformity pressures.