The New Republic and Early Presidential History

The New Republic and the Republican Phase Notes

George Washington

• Personal Background:

• Age: 56 years old at the start of his presidency.

• Notable for his missing teeth, which impacted his health and facial appearance.

• Family: Married to Martha Washington, who played a significant role in social gatherings and hospitality in the new capital.

• Professional Background:

• Roles: Distinguished military General during the American Revolution, successful plantation farmer, and a prominent politician.

• Became a symbol of national unity and leadership in the early republic.

• Economic Status:

• Wealth: Acknowledged as the richest man in America, primarily from landholdings and successful plantation practices, which influenced his policies.

Washington's First Term (1789-1797)

• Major Policies and Government Formation:

• Judiciary Act of 1789: Established a six-member Supreme Court, laying the groundwork for the judicial branch of government and establishing its authority. This act marked the first significant piece of legislation passed by Congress.

• Cabinet Members:

• Vice President: John Adams, who provided counsel and was pivotal in the legislative process.

• War: Henry Knox, focused on organizing the new nation’s military and defense strategies.

• State: Thomas Jefferson, who shaped foreign relations and articulated a vision for American diplomacy.

• Treasury: Alexander Hamilton, who set forth a financial system that stabilized the post-war economy and established credit for the nation.

• Attorney General: Edmund Randolph, responsible for legal affairs and enforcing federal laws.

• Postmaster General: Samuel Osgood, who built the foundation for the postal service, enhancing communication across the growing nation.

• Significant Events:

• Debt Compromise: Addressed national debt, particularly from the Revolutionary War; involved negotiations to assume state debts, leading to the establishment of the nation's credit.

• Whiskey Rebellion:

  • Uprising caused by the whiskey tax, implemented to reduce national debt and modify the economy.

  • Approximately 500 rebels attacked tax collectors to protest taxation; Washington’s response involved dispatching a militia of 13,000 troops to restore order, showcasing federal authority.

The French Crisis

• Key Events:

• Storming of the Bastille: July 14, 1789, marked a pivotal moment in the French Revolution, symbolizing the fight against tyranny and influencing American sentiments.

• Failure of the Monarchy: Led to widespread political chaos in France and initiated a shift in power dynamics.

• Haitian Revolution: Began in 1791, influencing American views on slavery and imperialism.

• Execution of the King: September 1792, deepened the revolutionary climate across the Atlantic.

• Political factions: Robespierre and the Jacobins vs. George Danton and the Girondins illustrated the internal conflicts shaping revolutionary France.

• Reign of Terror: A period characterized by extreme political violence and suppression of dissent, leading to thousands being executed.

Washington's Foreign Policy and Neutrality

• Neutrality Act of 1793: Aimed to maintain American neutrality in foreign conflicts, particularly between France and Britain, while protecting American interests.

• Citizen Genet Affair: A diplomatic crisis involving French ambassador Edmond Genet, whose actions prompted national debate on neutrality and foreign alliances.

• Seizure of American Vessels: Conflicts with Great Britain over maritime rights strained relations and tested American neutrality.

• Jay's Treaty: Negotiated with Britain to resolve issues from the Revolutionary War, addressed British interference in American trade, and helped stabilize diplomatic relations, despite public criticism.

• Navy Act: Strengthened American naval forces, preparing the young nation for future maritime conflicts.

Key Figures Post-Washington

• John Adams:

• Political affiliation: Federalist, advocating for a strong central government and a system of checks and balances.

• Election Results (1796): 71 electoral votes (51.4%), reflecting the division in political ideology.

• Thomas Jefferson:

• Political affiliation: Democratic-Republican, championing agrarian interests and state sovereignty.

• Election Results (1796): 68 electoral votes (49.3%), showing a competitive political landscape.

John Adams' Presidency

• Background:

• Early political career: Strong opponent of the Stamp Act, active participation in events like the Boston Massacre, and representative at the Continental Congress, reflecting commitment to colonial interests.

• Notable events: XYZ Affair with France heightened anti-French sentiment and led to an undeclared naval conflict, while the Alien and Sedition Acts were controversial laws limiting immigration and restricting speech against the government.

• Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Written in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, argued for states’ rights and the principle of nullification, igniting debates over state versus federal authority.

Thomas Jefferson's Presidency

• Significant Elective Events:

• 1800 election: Marked a significant political shift as Jefferson, running against incumbent Adams, tied with Aaron Burr, leading to the House of Representatives deciding the election, showcasing the importance of political parties.

• Major Policies and Actions:

• Burr Conspiracy: Aimed to lead a rebellion in the West; although ultimately unsuccessful, it raised concerns about loyalty and governance.

• Alexander Hamilton Duel: Burr killed Hamilton in a duel, which altered political dynamics and escalated tensions.

• Louisiana Purchase (1803): Acquired vast territory from France for $10 million, effectively doubling U.S. territory and expanding agricultural possibilities.

• Lewis and Clark Expedition: Commissioned to explore the newly acquired lands, they mapped the terrain and established critical relations with Native American tribes, significantly contributing to westward expansion.

The War of 1812

• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: British naval aggression against the American ship Chesapeake prompted outrage and contributed to rising tensions.

• Embargo Act (1807): Prohibited all trade to protect American shipping interests; however, it inadvertently led to economic hardship and disillusionment among American merchants.

• US Military Unpreparedness:

• With only a 12-ship navy compared to Britain's 800, the U.S. faced severe military limitations, compounded by financial struggles and divisions among states that hindered coordinated efforts.

Key Battles and Events

• Battle of Fort McHenry: Significant turning point inspiring Francis Scott Key to write the Star-Spangled Banner, symbolizing American resilience.

• Burning of Washington: British troops captured and torched key buildings, including the White House, which led to widespread panic but also unity in defense efforts, especially noted in the bravery of Dolley Madison.

Treaty of Ghent and Aftermath

• Treaty of Ghent (December 24, 1814): Formally ended the War of 1812, maintaining territorial boundaries and restoring pre-war conditions, indicative of the limitations of military conflict in shaping diplomatic outcomes.

• Battle of New Orleans (1815): A notable American victory led by Andrew Jackson, boosting national pride; occurring after the treaty had been signed, it nevertheless solidified Jackson’s reputation as a national hero.

The Era of Good Feelings (1816-1824)

• Election of 1816: Indicated the decline of the Federalist Party, leading to uncontested victories by Democratic-Republicans, reflecting a temporary political monopoly.

• John Quincy Adams: As Secretary of State, he played a central role in shaping foreign policy, negotiating treaties such as the Adams-Onís Treaty, which resulted in the purchase of Florida and bolstered U.S. territorial claims in North America.

The Missouri Compromise

• Compromise of 1820: A critical measure aimed at maintaining the balance between slave and free states, addressing sectional tensions.

• Tallmadge Amendment: Proposed measures to freeze slavery in Missouri, exemplifying the growing divide between Northern free states and Southern slave states, setting a precedent for future conflicts.

Conclusion

• Overview of the early republic highlights foundational issues such as the ongoing debate between federal and state power, challenges in foreign relations, prevailing financial policies, and the evolving tensions that contributed to sectionalism in America.