Genocide in the 20th Century

Why the 20th Century?

• The 20th century saw an unprecedented rise in genocides due to:
  • Centralized, coercive power of the state:
    • Bureaucracies enabled systematic organization.
    • Strong executives facilitated swift decision-making.
    • Disciplinary power ensured compliance.
    • Mobilization allowed for widespread participation.
  • Nationalism:
    • Promoted inclusion of certain groups and exclusion of others, creating divisions.
  • Modern media and propaganda:
    • Used for persuasion and manipulation of public opinion.
  • Effects of war and imperialism:
    • Created instability and exacerbated existing tensions.
  • Ideological commitment:
    • Fueled radical beliefs and justified extreme actions.

The Armenian Genocide

• Historical Context:
  • Armenians were ruled by Ottoman monarchs since the 15th century.
  • They were a minority Christian population governed by Muslim rulers.
  • The Ottoman Empire was multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious.
• Armenian Nationalism:
  • Developed in the 19th century.
  • Repressed by Sultans through massacres and incarceration.
• World War I:
  • In 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers.
• 1915 Genocide:
  • Campaigns against the Armenian minority began.
  • Propaganda described Armenians as internal threats who undermined war efforts.
  • Forced labor and systematic killing of the male Armenian population occurred.
  • Arrests, deportations, and death marches of women, the elderly, and the sick were carried out.

The Aftermath of the Armenian Genocide

• Considered the first modern "genocide" and cited by Raphael Lemkin.
• Paris Peace Conference:
  • Established Malta Tribunals, but all Ottomans subject to incarceration were returned to Turkey.
• Armenian Diaspora:
  • Communities formed throughout Europe and the U.S.
• Turkish Denial:
  • The Republic of Turkey refuses to acknowledge the genocide throughout the 20th century.
  • This is a contentious issue in foreign relations, with Turkey exerting leverage to dissuade recognition.
• Continued scholarship has increased awareness.
• U.S. Recognition:
  • In 2019, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution recognizing the genocide as official policy.
  • On April 24, 2021, President Biden acknowledged it as genocide.

The Killing Fields of Cambodia

• Khmer Rouge Regime:
  • The Khmer Rouge came to power in Cambodia in 1975.
  • They attempted to create an "agrarian paradise" for four years.
  • Supported by Chinese and North Vietnamese.
• Methods of Extermination:
  • Forced relocations and forced labor were imposed.
  • Mass executions were carried out, often with shovels, bamboo sticks, and poison.
  • Victims were sometimes smashed into trees.
• Casualties:
  • From 1975 to 1979, 1.5 to 3 million people died, representing about 25% of the population.
• Ideological Basis:
  • Based on Maoist ideals.
  • Targeted religious groups (particularly Muslims) and ethnic minorities.
  • Intellectuals and professionals were purged.
• End of the Regime:
  • Ended in 1979 with the Vietnamese invasion.
• Killing Fields:
  • Mass graves are still being discovered.
• Late 20th-century successful prosecution of high-level officials

Rwandan Genocide

• Colonial History:
  • Rwanda was a German colony, then Belgian after World War I.
  • Europeans favored Tutsis over the Hutu majority, considering them more Caucasian and ruling through the Tutsi monarchy.
• Ethnic Violence:
  • From 1959 to 1961, there was a first wave of ethnic violence, with reprisals against Tutsis.
• 1990s Conflict:
  • International pressure was placed on the Hutu government to share power with Tutsi refugees.
  • This angered conservative Hutus in the military, leading to the "Hutu Power" movement.
• 1994 Genocide:
  • From April to July 1994, 500,000 to 1 million Tutsis were slaughtered at the direction of the Hutu-led military.
  • This represented about 70% of the Tutsi population.

Aftermath of the Rwandan Genocide

• Widespread criticism of the U.S., Great Britain, Belgium, and the United Nations for inaction.
• France supported the Hutu government.
• Tutsi Victory:
  • In July 1994, Tutsi forces regained control of Rwanda, sparking a massive exodus of Hutus fearing reprisal.
• Regional Destabilization:
  • Refugees destabilized neighboring countries, leading to a Zaire coup in 1997.
• Health Crisis:
  • Massive infections of HIV, AIDs, and STDs occurred.
• Justice and Reconciliation:
  • The UN established an international tribunal.
  • The Rwanda government established local court systems but were undermined by enduring ethnic tensions.

Comparative Analysis of Genocides

• Commonalities:
  • All three genocides (Armenian, Cambodian, Rwandan) took place during times of war and civil strife.
  • All three drew upon long-standing racial, ethnic, or religious animosities, targeting minorities.
  • All three demonstrated the weakness of international response.
  • All three were wrapped up in politics and traumas of memory, forgetting, and history.