Anatomy Study Guide

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of the body and its parts.

• Physiology: The study of the functions and processes of the body and its parts.

Levels of Organization

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules that make up the body.

• Cellular Level: Cells, the basic units of life.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organ Level: Two or more tissues working together to perform a specific function.

• Organ System Level: Organs working together to perform complex functions.

• Organismal Level: The human body as a whole, made up of all systems functioning together.

Characteristics of Life

• Responsiveness: The ability to respond to stimuli.

• Growth: The increase in size and number of cells.

• Reproduction: The ability to produce offspring.

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body that sustain life.

• Excretion: Removal of waste products.

• Movement: Internal or external movement of the body or its parts.

• Differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized for specific functions.

Requirements of Life

• Oxygen: Necessary for cellular respiration.

• Nutrients: Provide energy and materials for growth and repair.

• Water: Vital for chemical reactions and regulating temperature.

• Heat: Helps maintain body temperature for metabolic processes.

• Pressure: Necessary for processes like breathing and blood circulation.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis: The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

Body Cavities

• Major Cavities:

  • Cranial cavity: Houses the brain.

  • Vertebral cavity: Contains the spinal cord.

  • Thoracic cavity: Contains the lungs, heart, and other organs.

  • Abdominal cavity: Contains stomach, intestines, liver, and other digestive organs.

  • Pelvic cavity: Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum.

• Minor Cavities:

  • Oral cavity: Contains the mouth.

  • Nasal cavity: Contains the nose.

  • Orbital cavities: Contain the eyes.

  • Middle ear cavities: Contain the ear bones.

Thoracic and Abdominal Membranes

• Pleura: Membranes surrounding the lungs.

• Pericardium: Membrane surrounding the heart.

• Peritoneum: Membrane surrounding abdominal organs.

Organ Systems and Associated Organs

• Integumentary system: Skin, hair, nails.

• Skeletal system: Bones, joints.

• Muscular system: Skeletal muscles.

• Nervous system: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

• Endocrine system: Glands like thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary.

• Cardiovascular system: Heart, blood vessels.

• Lymphatic system: Lymph nodes, lymph vessels.

• Respiratory system: Lungs, trachea.

• Digestive system: Stomach, intestines, liver.

• Urinary system: Kidneys, bladder.

• Reproductive system: Ovaries, testes, uterus.

Body Sections and Regions

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into left and right.

• Frontal plane: Divides the body into front and back.

• Transverse plane: Divides the body into upper and lower.

• Abdominal regions: Epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, and others.

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry

• Subatomic Particles:

  • Protons: Positive charge, found in the nucleus.

  • Neutrons: No charge, found in the nucleus.

  • Electrons: Negative charge, found in electron shells around the nucleus.

• Atomic Weight: The average mass of an atom, accounting for isotopes.

• Atomic Mass: The mass of a single atom, mainly determined by protons and neutrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Molecules vs. Compounds:

  • Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

  • Compound: A molecule that contains at least two different elements.

Types of Bonds

• Ionic bonds: Atoms transfer electrons, resulting in charged ions.

• Covalent bonds: Atoms share electrons.

• Hydrogen bonds: Weak bonds between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.

Types of Chemical Reactions

• Synthesis: Combining molecules to form a more complex molecule.

• Decomposition: Breaking down molecules into simpler ones.

• Exchange: Parts of molecules are exchanged.

• Reversible: Reactions that can go both ways.

Acids, Bases, and Salts

• Acids: Donate hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.

• Bases: Accept hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions (OH-).

• Salts: Compounds formed by the reaction of acids and bases.

• pH Scale: Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (0-14, with 7 being neutral).

Inorganic Substances Important to Humans

• Water: Vital for chemical reactions and temperature regulation.

• Oxygen: Essential for cellular respiration.

• Carbon dioxide: Byproduct of cellular respiration.

• Salts: Electrolytes important for body functions.

Organic Substances Important to Humans

• Carbohydrates: Provide energy.

• Proteins: Enzymes and structural components.

• Lipids: Store energy and make up cell membranes.

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA for genetic information.

DNA vs. RNA

• DNA: Double-stranded, stores genetic information.

• RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis.

Chapter 3: The Cell

• Cell Structure:

  • Cell membrane: Protects and regulates what enters/exits the cell.

  • Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance inside the cell.

  • Organelles: Specialized structures inside the cell (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria).

Cell Membrane and Junctions

• Phospholipid bilayer: Main structure of the cell membrane.

• Intercellular junctions: Connections between cells (tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions).

Organelles and Their Functions

• Nucleus: Contains the cell’s DNA and controls the cell.

• Mitochondria: Produce energy (ATP).

• Endoplasmic reticulum: Transports proteins and lipids.

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes.

Transport Mechanisms

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion with the help of transport proteins.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

  • Hypotonic: Water enters the cell.

  • Hypertonic: Water leaves the cell.

  • Isotonic: No net movement of water.

• Filtration: Movement of water and solutes through a membrane due to pressure.

• Active Transport: Requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient.

  • Endocytosis: The cell engulfs materials.

  • Exocytosis: The cell expels materials.

  • Transcytosis: Transport of substances across a cell.

Cell Cycle

• Interphase: The cell prepares for division (G1, S, G2 phases).

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus into two identical nuclei (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

DNA Replication

• DNA replication: The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: The process of copying DNA into mRNA.

• Translation: The process of making a protein from mRNA.

Chapter 4: Tissue and Membranes

• Epithelial Tissue: Protects, secretes, absorbs, and excretes. Found in the skin, lining of organs.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and stores nutrients. Includes bone, blood, and adipose tissue.

• Muscle Tissue: Specialized for contraction. Types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical signals. Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Chapter 5-7: Skin, Bones, and the Skeleton

• Skin Layers:

  • Epidermis: Outermost layer, provides waterproof barrier.

  • Dermis: Contains connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.

  • Hypodermis: Beneath the skin, stores fat.

• Bone Types:

  • Long bones: Example: femur.

  • Short bones: Example: carpals.

  • Flat bones: Example: skull.

  • Irregular bones: Example: vertebrae.

• Bone Structure:

  • Compact bone: Dense, forms the outer layer of bones.

  • Spongy bone: Lighter, found at the ends of long bones.

  • Osteons: Structural units of compact bone.

• Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton:

  • Axial: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

  • Appendicular: Limbs, girdles.