S

World history semester 2 exam review

Geography and City-State Development

  • Greece's mountainous terrain led to the development of independent city-states (polis) rather than a unified empire.

  • The sea (Aegean, Ionian, Mediterranean) facilitated trade and cultural exchange, creating wealth and contact with other civilizations.

  • Limited farmland encouraged colonization and competition among city-states.

City-State Relations

  • City-states often had rivalries (e.g., Athens vs. Sparta) but could unite temporarily against common enemies like Persia.

  • Delian League: Alliance led by Athens to defend against Persia, eventually turned into Athenian Empire.

  • Trade fostered interaction, but lack of central government limited trust and long-term collaboration.

Mycenae

  • First advanced civilization on mainland Greece.

  • Built fortified cities, strong military.

  • Key player in Trojan War legend.

  • Influenced later Greek religion, politics, and mythology.

Homer and Epic Poetry

  • Homer: Blind poet credited with writing the Iliad and Odyssey.

  • Poems passed down orally; preserved heroic ideals (courage, honor, loyalty).

  • Unified Greeks through shared cultural identity and values.

Key Figures in the Iliad

  • Achilles: Greek hero, central figure.

  • Hector: Trojan prince and defender.

  • Agamemnon: Leader of Greek forces.

  • Odysseus: Clever Greek warrior.

  • Paris: Trojan prince who took Helen.

  • Helen: Her abduction started the war.

Greek City-States Vocabulary

  • Polis: Independent city-state.

  • Agora: Marketplace and public gathering space.

  • Acropolis: Elevated area with temples and fortifications.

Hoplites and Warfare

  • Hoplites: Citizen-soldiers with spears, shields, and armor.

  • Fought in phalanx formation: tight ranks for defense and power.

  • Encouraged unity, discipline, and loyalty to polis.

Persian Wars

  • Causes: Greek support of Ionian Revolt against Persia.

  • Major battles:

    • Marathon: Greek victory using surprise tactics.

    • Thermopylae: Spartans' heroic stand.

    • Salamis: Naval battle, Greek victory.

  • Key figures: Darius I, Xerxes, Themistocles, Leonidas.

  • Results: Greek unity, Athenian dominance, rise of Delian League.

Athenian Empire

  • Used Delian League to build naval power and wealth.

  • Golden Age under Pericles: democracy, arts, and architecture flourished.

Peloponnesian War

  • Athens vs. Sparta over control and power.

  • Sparta allied with Persia.

  • Athens weakened by plague and poor leadership.

  • Result: Sparta wins, but all of Greece is weakened.

Alexander the Great

  • Son of Philip II of Macedonia.

  • Conquered Persia, Egypt, India.

  • Spread Greek culture (Hellenism).

  • Founded cities (e.g., Alexandria).

Colonization and Wealth

  • Greek city-states founded colonies around the Mediterranean.

  • Colonies increased trade and wealth.

  • New rich merchants began challenging traditional aristocracies.

Tyrants and Democracy

  • Tyrants seized power to represent common people.

  • Some made reforms that laid the groundwork for democracy.

  • Athens: Cleisthenes, Solon reformed laws and increased citizen participation.

Sparta vs. Athens

  • Sparta: Military society, oligarchy, strict discipline, little trade.

  • Athens: Democracy, arts, education, strong navy.

Greek Religion

  • Polytheistic; gods represented natural forces and human traits.

  • Major gods: Zeus, Athena, Apollo, Ares, Hera, Poseidon.

  • Myths explained natural events and justified cultural practices.

Greek Philosophers

  • Socrates: Questioning method, ethics, condemned to death.

  • Plato: Wrote The Republic, founded Academy.

  • Aristotle: Logic, science, tutor to Alexander.

Drama and Tragedy

  • Public performances in amphitheaters.

  • Tragedies dealt with fate, hubris, moral lessons.

  • Playwrights: Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus.

Hellenistic Era

  • After Alexander’s death, empire split into kingdoms.

  • Fusion of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures.

  • Advances in science (Archimedes), math (Euclid), philosophy (Stoicism).

Jesus's Teachings

  • Emphasized compassion, humility, forgiveness.

  • Shaped Western moral and legal values.

  • Influenced development of human rights and charity.

Jews under Roman Rule

  • Allowed religious freedom but taxed heavily.

  • Periodic revolts led to harsh crackdowns (e.g., destruction of Temple).

Spread of Christianity

  • Initially a Jewish sect.

  • Appealed to poor and oppressed.

  • Roman roads and trade routes helped spread.

Roman Attitudes

  • Supportive: Constantine (Edict of Milan), Theodosius (official religion).

  • Persecutors: Nero (blamed Christians for fire), Diocletian (mass persecutions).

Herod

  • King of Judea under Roman authority.

  • Known for cruelty and massive building projects.

Nero’s Persecution

  • Accused Christians of arson in Rome.

  • Used them as scapegoats for political problems.

Fall of Rome - Value Change Theory

  • Romans lost civic virtue.

  • Shifted from public duty to personal gain.

  • Reliance on non-Roman mercenaries weakened loyalty.

Monasticism

  • Withdrawal from society for religious life.

  • St. Benedict: Created rules for monks.

  • Monasteries preserved knowledge, taught reading/writing, helped poor.

Spread to Germanic Lands

  • Missionaries like St. Boniface converted tribes.

  • Christianity blended with local traditions.

Germanic Justice

  • Based on family and tribe loyalty.

  • Wergild: Compensation for injury/death.

  • Ordeal: Trial by physical test to prove innocence.

Carolingian Renaissance

  • Revival of learning and culture under Charlemagne.

  • Copied classical texts, improved Latin literacy.

Charlemagne

  • King of Franks, crowned Emperor in 800.

  • Expanded empire, promoted Christianity and education.

Missi Dominici

  • Royal agents who inspected lords and reported back to Charlemagne.

Diocletian and Constantine

  • Diocletian: Divided empire, fixed economy.

  • Constantine: Legalized Christianity, founded Constantinople.

Tetrarchy

  • Government by four rulers.

  • Failed after power struggles.

Clovis

  • First king of Franks to convert to Christianity.

  • Helped spread faith in Western Europe.

Emperor Justinian

  • Goal: Reunite Roman lands.

  • Created Justinian’s Code (organized Roman law).

  • Built Hagia Sophia.

Byzantine Empire Formation

  • Eastern Roman Empire survived fall of the West.

  • Strong trade, military, and centralized rule.

Role of Religion

  • Emperor seen as head of church and state.

  • Religious disputes (like icons) caused internal conflict.

Byzantine Trade

  • Silk, spices, wine, olive oil.

  • Connected Europe and Asia.

Church Schism (1054)

  • Split into Roman Catholic (West) and Eastern Orthodox (East).

  • Disagreements: Papal authority, icons, language of worship.

Medieval Europe - Vocabulary

  • Know terms: fief, vassal, serf, knight, manor, chivalry, etc.

Feudalism

  • Land exchanged for loyalty and protection.

  • King grants land to nobles; nobles to vassals; peasants/serfs work the land.

Magna Carta (1215)

  • Limited king’s power.

  • Right to trial, no taxation without consent.

  • Foundation for constitutional government.

Battle of Hastings

  • 1066: William of Normandy defeats Harold.

  • Brings feudalism and French influence to England.

Norman Conquest

  • French culture, language, and governance merge with Anglo-Saxon England.

Thomas Becket

  • Archbishop of Canterbury.

  • Killed after conflict with Henry II over church rights.

King John

  • Unpopular king.

  • Forced to sign Magna Carta due to abuses of power.

Crusades

  • Goals: Reclaim Holy Land from Muslims.

  • Increased trade, weakened feudalism, led to religious intolerance.

Inquisition

  • Church court to root out heresy.

  • Often used torture and fear.

Christianity in the Middle Ages

  • Dominated life; controlled education, politics, and morals.

  • Monasteries and cathedrals central to culture.

Cultural Achievements

  • Gothic cathedrals (e.g., Notre Dame).

  • Illuminated manuscripts, stained glass.

  • Universities and scholasticism (faith + reason).

Joan of Arc

  • Young French girl; led army to victory.

  • Captured and executed by English.

  • Became a symbol of nationalism and later saint.

Hundred Years War (1337–1453)

  • England vs. France.

  • Longbow, gunpowder, nationalism.

  • Strengthened monarchies.

Black Death (1347–1351)

  • Bubonic plague from Asia.

  • Killed 1/3 of Europe.

  • Labor shortages, peasant revolts, decline of feudalism.

  • Shook faith in the Church.

  • Tiberius (14-37 CE)

    • Second Roman Emperor after Augustus

    • Reclusive, paranoid, known for treason trials

  • Caligula (37-41 CE)

    • Notorious for erratic behavior

    • Assassinated by his Praetorian Guard after 4 years

  • Claudius (41-54 CE)

    • Able administrator despite disabilities

    • Expanded Roman territory, possibly poisoned by Agrippina

  • Nero (54-68 CE)

    • Last of Julio-Claudian dynasty

    • Tyrannical, blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome, committed suicide

  • Hadrian (117-138 CE)

    • Defensive policies, built Hadrian's Wall

    • Promoted Greek culture, suppressed Bar Kokhba revolt

  • Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)

    • One of the "Five Good Emperors"

    • Peace, economic stability, fair governance

  • Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

    • Last of "Five Good Emperors," philosopher-emperor

    • Wrote "Meditations," faced military challenges, dealt with Antonine Plague