World history semester 2 exam review

Geography and City-State Development

• Greece's mountainous terrain led to the development of independent city-states (polis) rather than a unified empire.

• The sea (Aegean, Ionian, Mediterranean) facilitated trade and cultural exchange, creating wealth and contact with other civilizations.

• Limited farmland encouraged colonization and competition among city-states.

City-State Relations

• City-states often had rivalries (e.g., Athens vs. Sparta) but could unite temporarily against common enemies like Persia.

• Delian League: Alliance led by Athens to defend against Persia, eventually turned into Athenian Empire.

• Trade fostered interaction, but lack of central government limited trust and long-term collaboration.

Mycenae

• First advanced civilization on mainland Greece.

• Built fortified cities, strong military.

• Key player in Trojan War legend.

• Influenced later Greek religion, politics, and mythology.

Homer and Epic Poetry

• Homer: Blind poet credited with writing the Iliad and Odyssey.

• Poems passed down orally; preserved heroic ideals (courage, honor, loyalty).

• Unified Greeks through shared cultural identity and values.

Key Figures in the Iliad

• Achilles: Greek hero, central figure.

• Hector: Trojan prince and defender.

• Agamemnon: Leader of Greek forces.

• Odysseus: Clever Greek warrior.

• Paris: Trojan prince who took Helen.

• Helen: Her abduction started the war.

Greek City-States Vocabulary

• Polis: Independent city-state.

• Agora: Marketplace and public gathering space.

• Acropolis: Elevated area with temples and fortifications.

Hoplites and Warfare

• Hoplites: Citizen-soldiers with spears, shields, and armor.

• Fought in phalanx formation: tight ranks for defense and power.

• Encouraged unity, discipline, and loyalty to polis.

Persian Wars

• Causes: Greek support of Ionian Revolt against Persia.

• Major battles:

  • Marathon: Greek victory using surprise tactics.

  • Thermopylae: Spartans' heroic stand.

  • Salamis: Naval battle, Greek victory.

• Key figures: Darius I, Xerxes, Themistocles, Leonidas.

• Results: Greek unity, Athenian dominance, rise of Delian League.

Athenian Empire

• Used Delian League to build naval power and wealth.

• Golden Age under Pericles: democracy, arts, and architecture flourished.

Peloponnesian War

• Athens vs. Sparta over control and power.

• Sparta allied with Persia.

• Athens weakened by plague and poor leadership.

• Result: Sparta wins, but all of Greece is weakened.

Alexander the Great

• Son of Philip II of Macedonia.

• Conquered Persia, Egypt, India.

• Spread Greek culture (Hellenism).

• Founded cities (e.g., Alexandria).

Colonization and Wealth

• Greek city-states founded colonies around the Mediterranean.

• Colonies increased trade and wealth.

• New rich merchants began challenging traditional aristocracies.

Tyrants and Democracy

• Tyrants seized power to represent common people.

• Some made reforms that laid the groundwork for democracy.

• Athens: Cleisthenes, Solon reformed laws and increased citizen participation.

Sparta vs. Athens

• Sparta: Military society, oligarchy, strict discipline, little trade.

• Athens: Democracy, arts, education, strong navy.

Greek Religion

• Polytheistic; gods represented natural forces and human traits.

• Major gods: Zeus, Athena, Apollo, Ares, Hera, Poseidon.

• Myths explained natural events and justified cultural practices.

Greek Philosophers

• Socrates: Questioning method, ethics, condemned to death.

• Plato: Wrote The Republic, founded Academy.

• Aristotle: Logic, science, tutor to Alexander.

Drama and Tragedy

• Public performances in amphitheaters.

• Tragedies dealt with fate, hubris, moral lessons.

• Playwrights: Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus.

Hellenistic Era

• After Alexander’s death, empire split into kingdoms.

• Fusion of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures.

• Advances in science (Archimedes), math (Euclid), philosophy (Stoicism).

Jesus's Teachings

• Emphasized compassion, humility, forgiveness.

• Shaped Western moral and legal values.

• Influenced development of human rights and charity.

Jews under Roman Rule

• Allowed religious freedom but taxed heavily.

• Periodic revolts led to harsh crackdowns (e.g., destruction of Temple).

Spread of Christianity

• Initially a Jewish sect.

• Appealed to poor and oppressed.

• Roman roads and trade routes helped spread.

Roman Attitudes

• Supportive: Constantine (Edict of Milan), Theodosius (official religion).

• Persecutors: Nero (blamed Christians for fire), Diocletian (mass persecutions).

Herod

• King of Judea under Roman authority.

• Known for cruelty and massive building projects.

Nero’s Persecution

• Accused Christians of arson in Rome.

• Used them as scapegoats for political problems.

Fall of Rome - Value Change Theory

• Romans lost civic virtue.

• Shifted from public duty to personal gain.

• Reliance on non-Roman mercenaries weakened loyalty.

Monasticism

• Withdrawal from society for religious life.

• St. Benedict: Created rules for monks.

• Monasteries preserved knowledge, taught reading/writing, helped poor.

Spread to Germanic Lands

• Missionaries like St. Boniface converted tribes.

• Christianity blended with local traditions.

Germanic Justice

• Based on family and tribe loyalty.

• Wergild: Compensation for injury/death.

• Ordeal: Trial by physical test to prove innocence.

Carolingian Renaissance

• Revival of learning and culture under Charlemagne.

• Copied classical texts, improved Latin literacy.

Charlemagne

• King of Franks, crowned Emperor in 800.

• Expanded empire, promoted Christianity and education.

Missi Dominici

• Royal agents who inspected lords and reported back to Charlemagne.

Diocletian and Constantine

• Diocletian: Divided empire, fixed economy.

• Constantine: Legalized Christianity, founded Constantinople.

Tetrarchy

• Government by four rulers.

• Failed after power struggles.

Clovis

• First king of Franks to convert to Christianity.

• Helped spread faith in Western Europe.

Emperor Justinian

• Goal: Reunite Roman lands.

• Created Justinian’s Code (organized Roman law).

• Built Hagia Sophia.

Byzantine Empire Formation

• Eastern Roman Empire survived fall of the West.

• Strong trade, military, and centralized rule.

Role of Religion

• Emperor seen as head of church and state.

• Religious disputes (like icons) caused internal conflict.

Byzantine Trade

• Silk, spices, wine, olive oil.

• Connected Europe and Asia.

Church Schism (1054)

• Split into Roman Catholic (West) and Eastern Orthodox (East).

• Disagreements: Papal authority, icons, language of worship.

Medieval Europe - Vocabulary

• Know terms: fief, vassal, serf, knight, manor, chivalry, etc.

Feudalism

• Land exchanged for loyalty and protection.

• King grants land to nobles; nobles to vassals; peasants/serfs work the land.

Magna Carta (1215)

• Limited king’s power.

• Right to trial, no taxation without consent.

• Foundation for constitutional government.

Battle of Hastings

• 1066: William of Normandy defeats Harold.

• Brings feudalism and French influence to England.

Norman Conquest

• French culture, language, and governance merge with Anglo-Saxon England.

Thomas Becket

• Archbishop of Canterbury.

• Killed after conflict with Henry II over church rights.

King John

• Unpopular king.

• Forced to sign Magna Carta due to abuses of power.

Crusades

• Goals: Reclaim Holy Land from Muslims.

• Increased trade, weakened feudalism, led to religious intolerance.

Inquisition

• Church court to root out heresy.

• Often used torture and fear.

Christianity in the Middle Ages

• Dominated life; controlled education, politics, and morals.

• Monasteries and cathedrals central to culture.

Cultural Achievements

• Gothic cathedrals (e.g., Notre Dame).

• Illuminated manuscripts, stained glass.

• Universities and scholasticism (faith + reason).

Joan of Arc

• Young French girl; led army to victory.

• Captured and executed by English.

• Became a symbol of nationalism and later saint.

Hundred Years War (1337–1453)

• England vs. France.

• Longbow, gunpowder, nationalism.

• Strengthened monarchies.

Black Death (1347–1351)

• Bubonic plague from Asia.

• Killed 1/3 of Europe.

• Labor shortages, peasant revolts, decline of feudalism.

• Shook faith in the Church.

• Tiberius (14-37 CE)

  • Second Roman Emperor after Augustus

  • Reclusive, paranoid, known for treason trials

• Caligula (37-41 CE)

  • Notorious for erratic behavior

  • Assassinated by his Praetorian Guard after 4 years

• Claudius (41-54 CE)

  • Able administrator despite disabilities

  • Expanded Roman territory, possibly poisoned by Agrippina

• Nero (54-68 CE)

  • Last of Julio-Claudian dynasty

  • Tyrannical, blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome, committed suicide

• Hadrian (117-138 CE)

  • Defensive policies, built Hadrian's Wall

  • Promoted Greek culture, suppressed Bar Kokhba revolt

• Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)

  • One of the "Five Good Emperors"

  • Peace, economic stability, fair governance

• Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

  • Last of "Five Good Emperors," philosopher-emperor

  • Wrote "Meditations," faced military challenges, dealt with Antonine Plague