Note
0.0
(0)
Rate it
Take a practice test
Chat with Kai
undefined Flashcards
0 Cards
0.0
(0)
Explore Top Notes
Hygiene - A Key to Healthy Life
Note
Studied by 41 people
5.0
(2)
AP Psychology - Development
Note
Studied by 509 people
5.0
(2)
Personality 210 Psychology Notes (Part 4) The Big Five
Note
Studied by 32 people
5.0
(1)
Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties
Note
Studied by 8394 people
5.0
(11)
Unit 7: Period 7: 1890-1945
Note
Studied by 302 people
5.0
(1)
Chapter 17 - The Civil War
Note
Studied by 47 people
5.0
(1)
Home
Social Studies
Psychology
Child Development: A Cultural Approach - Toddlerhood
Growth and Change in Years 2 and 3
Bodily Growth
Brain Development
Motor Development
Bodily Growth
Toddler Growth
Children lose baby fat and become leaner.
The body grows faster than the head.
Nutrition changes at about 6 months when solid food is introduced.
Nutritional deficiencies occur in developing countries, leading to slower growth.
Kwashiorkor – protein deficiency
Micronutrient deficiency – lack of crucial vitamins and minerals
Brain Development
Toddler Brain Development
Steep increase of synaptic density.
Number of synaptic connections among neurons
New neurons produced in frontal cortex
Long process of synaptic pruning
Connections between neurons become fewer but more efficient.
Increases efficiency by allowing unused synapses to wither away
Toddler Brain Activity
EEG research shows a sharp increase in overall cortical activity from 18 to 24 months.
fMRI method shows that toddlers have greater frontal lobe activity in response to speech than older children
Reflects the brain’s readiness for rapid language acquisition.
Motor Development
Gross Motor Development: From Toddling to Running, Jumping, and Climbing
11 months – walk without support
15 months – stand and begin to climb
18 months – some running
24 months – can kick with more dexterity
Gross motor skills continue to develop as they gain more flexibility and balance
Fine Motor Development: From Scribbling to Building With Blocks
Fine motor skills not as fast, but still substantial
12 months – show left or right preference for eating
24 months – learn to hold a cup, scribble, and turn pages
36 months – expands previous fine motor skills
Socializing Physical Functions: Weaning and Sleeping
Weaning
Breast-feeding for 2 to 3 years has been typical human custom until recently.
Varies widely among cultures
Harder to wean the longer into toddlerhood
Traditional cultures have customary practices for weaning
Sleeping
Declines to 15 hours by age 1, and 12 to 13 hours by age 2.
More of a night-sleeping, day-waking arousal schedule
Not necessarily sleeping through the night
In traditional cultures, toddlers start sleeping with siblings
Theories of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory: The Completion of the Sensorimotor Stage
Vygotsky’s Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory: The Completion of the Sensorimotor Stage
Mental Representations
Think about possibilities and select actions
Intentionally trying out different behaviors
Leads to development of language
Deferred Imitation
Ability to repeat actions observed earlier
Piaget suggested 18 months but happens sooner – as early as 6 weeks
Maturation of hippocampus in toddlerhood, which is responsible for long-term memory encoding and recall
Categorization
Ability to mentally put objects into categories
At 2 years, toddlers go beyond appearance and can categorize functions or qualities
“Blicket” experiment
Vygotsky’s Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky’s Research
Often referred to as a sociocultural theory
Cognitive development is always both social and cultural
Children learn through interactions with others
Distinct cultural differences in knowledge children must acquire
The Zone of Proximal Development
Range of skills child can perform if guided to, but can’t accomplish alone
Private speech
Self-guiding and self-directing comments children make to themselves
Adolescents and adults use when solving tasks
Scaffolding
Degree of assistance provided
Emphasis on social learning
Guided Participation
Barbara Rogoff’s extension of Vygotsky’s theory
Teaching interaction between two people as they participate in a culturally valued activity
Can be direct or indirect
Emphasis on culture and role of values
Language Development
The Biological and Evolutionary Bases of Language
Milestones of Toddler Language: From First Words to Fluency
Learning Language in a Social and Cultural Context
The Biological and Evolutionary Bases of Language
Language
Can communicate not just about what exists but about what might exist or what we imagine
Can teach chimpanzees sign language, but not speech
Important distinguishing feature of human language is infinite generativity
Combining symbols in infinite ways
Biological Characteristics
Unique vocal apparatus
Brain specialization: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area
Specific genes
Evolutionary advantage for its social function
Children learn basic rules of grammar at same age
Chomsky proposed Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Innate brain feature enabling children to learn language
Milestones of Toddler Language: From First Words to Fluency
Twelve Months to 18 Months: Slow Expansion
Begins slowly then rises sharply during toddlerhood
First 50 words part of toddler’s routine
Similarities of first words across cultures
12 to 18 months, use one word at a time
Holophrases
Overextensions
Underextensions
Eighteen Months to 24 Months: The Naming Explosion
Pace of learning new words doubles, also called vocabulary spurt
Begin to see processes of:
Fast mapping
Learning and remembering a word after just one time of being told what object is
Telegraphic speech
Two-word phrases that strip away connecting words
Syntactic bootstrapping
Using knowledge of syntax to figure out the meaning of words
Twenty-Four Months to 36 Months: Becoming Adept at Language
Diminished frequency of overextension and underextension
Show understanding of rules of language
May show overregularization
Applying grammatical rules to everything, even exceptions
Learning Language in a Social and Cultural Context
Importance of Language
7,000 different human languages
Language necessary for social development
Focus on how parents foster language
Parents read and explain word meaning
Some research suggests social class differences
Use of infant-directed (ID) speech beneficial as well
Emotional Development in Toddlerhood
Toddlers’ Emotions
The Birth of the Self
Gender Identity and the Biology of Gender Development
Toddlers’ Emotions
Emotional Self-Regulation
Show how we feel
Toddlers develop self-regulation in four ways:
Behavioral development
Use of language
Social demands (external requirements)
Development of sociomoral emotions
“Terrible twos” occur possibly due to increased sense of self
Learning the Sociomoral Emotions
Primary emotions develop in infancy
Secondary emotions develop in toddlerhood
Known as sociomoral emotions
Empathy extremely important
Ability to understand and respond helpfully to another person’s distress
Beginning of prosocial behavior
Behavior intended to help or benefit others
Cultural differences in how sociomoral emotions are shaped
The Birth of the Self
Self-Awareness
Starts in infancy but advances further in toddlerhood
Self-recognition
Recognizing image of self
Self-reflection
Think about themselves as they would think about others
Gender Identity and the Biology of Gender Development
Gender Identity
Children begin to identify as male or female during toddlerhood
Sex – biological status of being male or female
Gender – cultural categories of male and female
Culture communicates gender expectations
Parents have early influence in conveying gender messages
Includes names, dressing, toys
Gender and Biology
Three elements to biological basis of gender development
Evolutionary
Gender differences based on characteristics promoting survival
Males – aggressive, competitive, dominance
Females – nurturing, cooperative, emotionally responsive
Ethology
Animal behavior shows evidence of biology
Hormonal
Hormonal balance differences
The Limits of Biology
Gender roles have changed dramatically while biology has stayed same
Enormous influence of culture
Variability within each gender much greater than between genders
Attachment Theory and Research
Attachment Theory
Quality of Attachment
Attachment Theory
Bowlby’s Theory
Debunked belief that babies are attached to mothers solely because they are the source of food
Based on research findings on institutionalized infants, baby monkeys, and imprinting
Emotional tie between children and mothers based on children’s need for protection and care
Primary attachment figure
Person who is sought out when a child experiences distress or threat
Stranger anxiety
Fear in response to unfamiliar persons
Bowlby’s Theory continued
Loss of primary attachment figure is a catastrophe for children’s development
Children use primary attachment figure as a secure base from which to explore surrounding environment
Attachment develops gradually over the first 2 years, culminating in a goal-corrected partnership
Varieties of Attachment: The Strange Situation
Mary Ainsworth pioneered attachment research
Strange Situation devised to assess attachment by going through 8 vignettes
Led to the development of four attachment classifications:
Secure attachment
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Insecure-resistant attachment
Disorganized-disoriented attachment
Quality of Attachment
Determinants of Attachment Quality
Attachment theory suggests quality influenced by:
Maternal sensitivity
What a child needs at any given time
Maternal responsiveness
Quick to assist or soothe when needed
Children develop an internal working model of attachment
What to expect from mother
Can apply to later relationships
Attachment Quality and Later Development
Research is mixed on predictions of attachment theory
Internal working model established early may be modified substantially by later experiences
Disorganized-disoriented attachment can be predictive of later problems
Critiques of Attachment Theory
Child effect critique
Children are born with different temperaments
Parent–child relations are reciprocal or bidirectional
Cultural variations critique
Some attachments are recognizable across cultures
Most common is what constitutes a securely attached child
Cultural differences in typical patterns of care
Cultural variations in what attachment types are desired
The Social World of the Toddler
The Role of Fathers
The Wider Social World: Siblings, Peers, and Friends
Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Disruption in Social Development
Media Use in Toddlerhood
The Role of Fathers
Fathers in Traditional Cultures
Fathers rarely involved in daily child care, but are part of the child’s social environment in other ways
In China, father is provider and disciplinarian; in Latin America, father is provider and also warm and affectionate
Some cultures in Africa have a tradition of polygyny
Common cultural pattern is that fathers serve as providers but remote from the child’s emotional life
Some exceptions, such as Manu fathers
Fathers in Developed Countries
Interact less and provide less care
Do interact, but in play rather than care
Change to more egalitarian in recent years
Parenting is a learned pattern, not innate, and can change with culture
The Wider Social World: Siblings, Peers, and Friends
Siblings: Younger and Older
In both traditional cultures and developed countries, toddlers show attachment to older siblings
Older sibling provides emotional comfort and security if the primary caregiver is not around
Toddlers may show negative reactions to younger siblings
Conflict is common with siblings
Peers and . . . Friends?
Toddlers form first social relations outside the family
Siblings, cousins, child care
Children engage in solitary play, parallel play, simple social play, and cooperative pretend play
Well-acquainted toddlers engage in more advanced forms of play than unacquainted toddlers
Toddlers can form friendships, similar to adults
Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Disruption in Social Development
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Features for diagnosis include:
Persistent deficits in social communication and interactions
Repetitive and restricted behavior
The majority of ASD children are low in intelligence and exhibit some degree of intellectual disability
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) continued
1 in 68 in U.S. fit the criteria for autism spectrum disorder
Origins are unclear, but believed to have a genetic basis
Although usually diagnosed between 18 to 30 months, it is seen in infancy
As adults can live with parents or in government-sponsored group homes
Media Use in Toddlerhood
Media Use
73% of toddlers watch TV every day
Toddlers understand images are not real although the boundary is not completely clear
The effect of media depends on content
Can encourage pro-social behavior
May expand vocabularies
Displacement effect is a concern
Children should spend time reading or playing instead
Note
0.0
(0)
Rate it
Take a practice test
Chat with Kai
undefined Flashcards
0 Cards
0.0
(0)
Explore Top Notes
Hygiene - A Key to Healthy Life
Note
Studied by 41 people
5.0
(2)
AP Psychology - Development
Note
Studied by 509 people
5.0
(2)
Personality 210 Psychology Notes (Part 4) The Big Five
Note
Studied by 32 people
5.0
(1)
Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties
Note
Studied by 8394 people
5.0
(11)
Unit 7: Period 7: 1890-1945
Note
Studied by 302 people
5.0
(1)
Chapter 17 - The Civil War
Note
Studied by 47 people
5.0
(1)