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Modern waste management contributions- garbology influenced waste management policies; plastic and disposable diapers were not found to be the bulk of waste, instead it was construction debris. Hermetically sealed garbage ensures that it is preserved under anoxic, stable conditions rather than allowing it to decompose. Found it helped to include recycling practices.

Wasteful behaviors- people tend to generate more food waste during times of scarcity. For example, during times of shortage, people will hoard things and then won’t need them and then dispose of them or they choose more affordable products and dispose of them since they find out they don’t like them.

Status-linked behaviors- the affluent under-report red meat consumption; the less affluent over-report it; middle class like name brands more than affluent people

Successful research hinges on thoughtful research design, appropriate sampling strategy, careful data collection, disciplined analysis, interpretation of findings, and recommendations for future research.

Survey-refers to the intentional search process; entails intensive inspection and/or sampling of a particular area of interest

Research design-the survey is determined by a research design which is built upon legitimate questions

Document-aided strategy- is looking at written documents, like maps, official records, or diaries to pinpoint site locations; sometimes a first step even before field work

Much written history is biased and particularistic.

Sampling strategy- is a science unto itself; always important to design a project so that it generates valid results

Pedestrian strategy-where area of interest is in a setting devoid of vegetation; conducted by people walking across the area 5-10 meters apart to inspect the surface for arch. evidence; in arid parts of world little vegetation

Subsurface sampling strategy-if the area is covered with vegetation, small holes are dug by a survey team systematically in “shovel tests”  10-30 meters apart. Soil dug out is dutifully screened so that artifacts can be captured and records kept where positive and negative tests occur. A map is then created and site limits/boundaries (sizes) are defined.

Site distribution patterns (settlement pattern analysis)-where survey projects result in the ability to plot multiple sites within a given region; a study in landscape history

The ultimate measure of an archaeologist is the quality of the records he/she keeps and their reconstructing of the past by putting it back together in the lab

Provenience-is the shorthand expression of the position of a piece of evidence on a particular site; is recorded to capture context; three-dimensional location of evidence; the place of origin for archaeological materials, including location, association, and context

Grid system/coordinates (horizontal control)- x,  y, z positional data; (x, y horizontal location and z vertical); used in arch. sites; artifacts are precisely plotted this way

Datum (vertical control)-is a fixed and physical “monument” that marks a known elevation; all artifacts found are recorded relative to datum in terms of elevation above mean sea level.

Shovel tests-way to get small physical samples if the goal is finding sites

Units-if the goal is data recovery at a specific site; sample locations are fewer but larger; 1x1 or 2x2 meters in size.

Block excavations-are used if a large section of a site needs to be exposed

Trowel-standard, personal tool of almost every arch.; triangular-bladed trowels used for fine hand excavation and are designed as mason’s tools; good for controlled earthmoving

Shovels-two kinds are also basic to an excavation to help move larger soil volumes; round-ended “spades” are the go-to option and square-ended shovels used for finer work- sometimes called “shovel-shaving”

Sifting screen- used to pass soil thru obtained by soil removed by trowels and shovels; mesh screen (“hardware cloth”) is usually ¼ inch allowing for a standardized sample size

Heavy equipment- like backhoes are used to quickly move soil

Phases of investigation-Archaeological projects progress in phases: site discover phase called survey, testing phase to evaluate integrity and research significance, and ultimately maybe intensive, larger-scale data recovery if it can’t be preserved or if information is essential for answering important questions

Satellite imagery (only shows what is visible from overhead): 

1. direct imagery which is photographic-quality images like google maps 

2. multispectral imagery by filtering the light spectrum these images can discern contrasts in growth pattens of vegetables 

LIDAR (light detection and ranging)-new miracle of remote sensing technology; LIDAR instruments are designed to transmit a “cloud” of laser light and then “receive” it as reflected light from a surface; by measuring time elapsed for return of reflected light, details of the targeted surface may be recorded; laser light received quickly (higher elevation) implies a closer surface and light received more slowly (lower elevation) implies a surface farther away; drones, airplane, etc. can collect data from which very high resolution topographic (contour) maps can be produced; very accurate mapping method; can penetrate vegetation

Geophysics-(2 main methods) refers to remote sensing that involves sophisticated instruments that allow us to “see” below the ground surface; used in geology and in archaeology; non-invasive technology; high degree of accuracy and efficient application; they identify things and areas below ground that are unusual relative to the surrounding, native soil but they can’t identify what it is exactly- just record its presence and give a sense of their size, shape, and depth. 

1. Magnetometry-involves instruments designed to measure local variation in the earth’s magnetic field; behaves like a compass but with electronics by detecting spots (oxidation of iron minerals in the soil) below the surface that are interfering with the normal background magnetism; can detect foundations, ditches, graves, etc.; are good since data can be collected quickly but not good because they are sensitive to background interference like compasses, overhead transmission lines and metal clothing fasteners.

2. Ground penetrating radar (GPR)-achieves the same thing as magnetometry but with different technological principles. Every GPR instrument contains a transmitter of radio signals and a receiver for detecting the same reflected signals. Is able to record info by the GPR unit which reveals the relative depth of an anomaly below the surface, like LIDAR. When the signals reflect back strongly and quickly, the result is taken to mean there is something “anomalous” down there that is causing the difference; advantage of using this is that it can be used to penetrate hard surfaces like parking lots; disadvantage is that the unit must be in close contact with the ground which is hard to achieve in a forested area.

Anomalies-targets of interests (the anomalies); old fashioned excavation is necessary to determine the true identity of an anomaly;  anomalies play a crucial role in archaeology and geosciences. These anomalies refer to variations in the physical properties of the Earth's surface or subsurface that differ from the norm.

Ground truthing-the process of determining the true identity of an anomaly by old-fashioned excavation; serves as the yardstick for validating the precision of remote sensing data, be it from satellite imagery, aerial snapshots, or other remote sensing modalities. 

Temporal control- how and why cultures change over time, the study of time and its relationship to space and material culture. It involves analyzing archaeological data, understanding temporal relationships, and considering phases and typology in regional synthesis; do this by relative and absolute dating

Stratigraphy-the basis for constructing a relative chronology; the study of layering in a deposit, usually consisting of soil of rock layers and the sequence of events they reflect

Law of Superposition-- relative dating method; older deposits occur in the lower parts of a stratigraphic sequence and the younger ones closer to the top; vertical relationships among a group of strata is how it is judged

Site formation processes-Erosion due to turbation (mixing) in the soil; natural (animals, weather, etc.) and cultural (humans)

Radiocarbon method-revolutionized arch; form of ABSOLUTE dating that uses C14 as a nuclear clock to provide a "death date" to formerly living things; first discovered by Richard Libby, who worked on the "Manhattan Project";  approximation at best; done by chemists and physicists not archaeologists; surviving levels of the 14C isotope are measured in organic materials to yield a statistical approx. of an object's true age; not perfect so will have a statistic confidence interval(+/-);  all living things maintain a level of carbon-14 in their systems that is in equilibrium with the level in the atmosphere; limitation is radiocarbon dating only applies to organic material (wood, bones, shells) so most radiocarbon samples are from carbonized wood (charcoal); doesn’t  date most common artifacts found like stone and ceramic; still can be inaccurate, thus  not perfectly accurate or precise

Confidence intervals-fluctuations in the calibration curve produced by variations in the atmosphere's carbon-14 content; these can cause radiocarbon dates to calibrate to more than one calendar age (100 years); determined by the quality of a sample, it's the confidence in regards to the death date of an object via radio carbon dating; since C14 levels are non-constant, there will be some type of interval that a date could lie within.

Dendrochronology (tree ring dating/calibration) -only method that yields dates of single-year precision; basic method is counting tree rings to determine the age of a tree; absolute dating method; if samples from multiple trees with overlapping ring sequences are matched by cross-dating, a very long local chronology can be constructed, even back thousands of years; most precise form of absolute dating; wood with measurable annual rings does not survive on most sites; saved the day; uses “Curve of the Knowns”; ring wood of known age is used to “correct” radiocarbon results done by adding or subtracting  the appropriate correction factor based on the tree ring calibration curve and this process is known as tree ring calibration of a date. 

Material culture attributes- used to overcome shortcomings of methods; most rely on physical attributes of artifacts like stone tools and fragments (sherds) of ceramic containers; these have specific set of physical characteristics ranging from size to shape to decorations added; because these characteristics changed in a regular, systematic fashion over time, due to evolving manufacturing processes and cultural needs or interests, it becomes possible to use those attributes for dating purposes.

Willard Libby- developed radiocarbon method; chemist; awarded Nobel prize in chemistry for developing dating method; understood earth contained radioactive isotopes;
knew isotopes broke down quickly and at a fixed rate thus provided a virtual clock

Curve of the Knowns- calibration chart developed by Libby for radiocarbon results based on tree rings which saved the day; sample data from bible and wood coffin; radiocarbon dating method was capable of consistently determining age of ancient (organic) material

Atmospheric carbon & changing levels- levels of atmospheric carbon have not remained constant over the ages and that is what is causing dating inaccuracies; much of variation occurs on predictable cycle; the intensity of the sun's cosmic outputs have not (and are not) constant

Half-life-Length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay (5730 Years, Logarithmically), useful until about 50,000 years prior; isotope has a half-life of 5730 years; after 50,000 years it is “radiocarbon dead” because no C14 is left

DeVries Effect-11- year sunspot cycle; fluctuations in the calibration curve produced by variations in the atmosphere's carbon-14 content; these can cause radiocarbon dates to calibrate to more than one calendar age. 

Seuss Effect-decline in the atmospheric (C-14)/(C-12) ratio; due to negative effects of industrial emissions; as well as nuclear weapons testing

Conventional radiocarbon dating method- involves the same process developed by Libby, though with modern improvements; not 100% accurate; sadly requires larger samples and is less precise than others; all dates require confidence levels so 2310 BP (+/- 30) means 2310 estimated age within a range of 60 years; indirectly measures 14C decay over given time span; uses a geiger counter

Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) dating method-newer process; different than traditional carbon dating (30G samples, slow, not exact); small samples with great precision; faster method of dating; more costly

Faunal- Animal remains

Floral- plant remains

More specific environmental info: Paleoenvironmental research, treerings, pollen, ice cores, sediment cores, proxy sources, seeds, bones

PALYNOLOGY- study of pollen grains to reconstruct the environment

Ice cores- best for temperature, cylinder of ice drilled out of glacier

tree rings- best for precipitation

sediment/pollen- best for time, proxy data usually taken out of wetlands

 What distinguishes archaeology- material basis, deep time perspective

seriation- arrangement of artifacts types of chronological sequence according to popularity 

2 types of radiocarbon dating- Conventional dating and Accelerator Mass Spectrometer

Archaeologys external quest- document and explain change in material culture (how cars change from 1920 to now)

Archaeology Overview

Definition and Importance

• Archaeologists are anthropologists who study human history and prehistory through material remains. Good archaeology begins with asking insightful questions about the social and cultural contexts of past human behaviors.

Anthropology Subfields

• Biological Anthropology: Focuses on humans as biological organisms, including evolution and genetics.

• Cultural Anthropology: Encompasses ethnography (the study of cultures) and ethnology (the comparative and analytical study of cultures).

• Linguistic Anthropology: Studies how language influences social life.

• Archaeological Anthropology: Examines material remains to understand past human societies.

Key Concepts in Archaeology

• Archaeology: The study of human artifacts, structures, and other material remains to reconstruct past societies.

• Culture: Refers to learned behaviors and practices that help people adapt to their environments. It is represented through material culture, which reflects social practices and values.

Unique Aspects of Archaeology

• Physical Evidence: Archaeologists focus on direct material evidence, which provides tangible insights into past human activities.

• Deep-Time Perspective: Understanding human history over vast periods, often millions of years.

• Material Bias: Emphasizing physical artifacts over written records, as written history can often be incomplete or biased.

• Ethical Code: Maintaining a professional ethical standard is crucial, given the fragility and finiteness of the archaeological record.

Distinctions from Other Fields

• Looting: The illicit act of excavating sites for personal gain, with severe ramifications for cultural heritage.

Paradigms in Archaeology

• Speculative Period: Refers to the largely atheoretical approach of the 17th-19th centuries, focusing on reconciling artifacts with biblical accounts.

• Descriptive Approach: Emerged in the 18th-19th centuries, emphasizing a more scientific collection and cataloging of artifacts.

• Culture History: Established a chronology by ordering artifacts in historical sequence through stratigraphic excavation, marking the rise of scientific methods in archaeology.

• Processual Approach: A shift towards understanding the dynamic relationship between culture, economy, and environment.

• Post-Processual Approach: Emphasizes individual interpretations and the subjective nature of archaeological evidence.

• Processual-plus Approach: Merges scientific rigor with studies of identity and other intangible aspects of the archaeological record.

Context and Integrity in Archaeology

• Sites: Defined as locations with evidence of human activity and features.

• Features: Non-portable evidence such as hearths or architectural elements that indicate human presence.

• Artifacts: Portable items created or adapted by humans, reflecting their usage.

• Matrix: The surrounding physical material, usually soil, that encases artifacts and features.

• Strata and Context: Understanding layers of soil is critical, as context is essential for interpreting artifacts accurately. The mantra in archaeology is that "context is everything."

• Law of Association: Items found together are assumed to have been used together, indicating a relationship.

• Provenience: The recorded origin of artifacts and features in archaeological contexts.

• Integrity: Refers to the preservation state of archaeological sites, which can be compromised by various factors.

Formation Processes and Taphonomy

• Formation Processes: Natural and human actions that affect how archaeological deposits are created and preserved.

• Taphonomy: The study of how organisms decay and their remains are preserved or altered throughout time.

Preservation Factors

• Good Preservation: Influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, and acidity. Extremes like anoxic (oxygen-free) and low-acid conditions contribute significantly to preservation (e.g., discoveries like Ötzi and Shipwrecks).

• Bog Bodies: Well-preserved human remains found in peat bogs, exemplifying the effects of anaerobic conditions.

Garbology and Modern Material Culture

• Garbology: Coined by William Rathje, involves analyzing modern refuse to understand contemporary culture and behaviors.

• Applied Archaeology: Engaging archaeological methods to solve current sociocultural issues.

• Ethnoarchaeology: Studies modern peoples to inform how present behaviors translate into future archaeological records.

Research Methods and Strategies

• Surveys: Systematic searches for archaeological evidence across areas of interest.

• Sampling Strategies: Careful designs to yield representative and valid archaeological data.

• Context Recording: Employing methods like the grid system and datum points to document precise locations and relationships of finds.

Dating Techniques in Archaeology

• Relative Dating: Analyzes the chronological order of artifacts without assigning specific dates.

• Absolute Dating: Provides specific dates through methods like radiocarbon dating, which measures isotopic decay to assign age.

• Dendrochronology: Tree rings offer precise annual dating, aiding in calibrating radiocarbon results.

Challenges and Innovations

• Calibration Issues: Understanding shifts in atmospheric carbon is essential for accurate dating.

• Modern Techniques: Innovations in remote sensing, such as LIDAR and magnetometry, allow non-invasive site analysis, enhancing archaeological investigations.

• Ground Truthing: Essential for validating findings from remote sensing; involves traditional excavation to confirm site data.