Untitled Flashcards Set

Native Americans Before European Contact

• Pre-Colonization: Indigenous people lived in North America long before European settlers arrived.

• Columbus' Misnomer: In the 15th century, Christopher Columbus mistakenly called the indigenous people “Indians,” a term that persisted until “Native Americans” became widely used.

• Geographical Spread: Tribes were spread across North America, from coast to coast.

• Introduction of Horses: Spanish explorers introduced horses to Plains Indians (16th–17th centuries), enabling them to travel faster and become nomadic, following buffalo herds for food, clothing, and shelter.

Tribal Organization and Culture

• Social Structure:

  • Tribes were divided into smaller societies or “bands” (around 500 people each).

  • Chiefs served as religious, moral, and political leaders.

  • A governing council, composed of males, managed tribal affairs.

  • Men provided food, shelter, and protection, while women handled domestic duties.

• Marriage & Unity:

  • Marriages outside the tribe were rare.

  • Tribes often clashed rather than cooperated, contributing to their inability to unite against white settlers.

Westward Expansion & Native Displacement

• Early European Settlements: Indians along the Atlantic Coast moved westward as European settlers arrived.

• U.S. Territorial Claims:

  • By the early 19th century, the U.S. government claimed most of North America.

  • Indians were initially allowed to remain but were subject to federal regulation.

  • Tribes were treated paradoxically as both independent nations and wards of the state.

• Broken Treaties & Land Grabs:

  • Treaties between the U.S. and tribes required Senate ratification but were often ignored.

  • White settlers coveted Indian lands for agriculture and settlement.

  • Government officials frequently disregarded treaties, leading to unlawful removals of tribes.

Indian Relocation & Reservation Policies

• Concentration Policy (1851):

  • Aimed to relocate Indians to less fertile land north and south of white settlements.

  • White settlers demanded more land, leading to further displacement.

• Reservation System:

  • Tribes like the Sioux were confined to small areas (e.g., Black Hills, Dakota Territory).

  • Oklahoma became known as “Indian Territory.”

  • The policy was framed as protection but was primarily about seizing land.

• Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) (1836):

  • Initially under the Department of War, showing military control over Indians.

  • Later focused on overseeing reservations, but was plagued by corruption.

  • Officials often accepted bribes, allowing settlers to seize Indian land and resources.

Indian Resistance & the Indian Wars (Late 19th Century)

• Constant Warfare: Indians resisted white encroachment, leading to ongoing battles.

• Key Players:

  • U.S. military forces, including Civil War veterans and Black soldiers (Buffalo Regiment).

  • Generals like William T. Sherman, P.T. Sheridan, and George Custer led campaigns against Native tribes.

Major Conflicts

• Sand Creek Massacre (1864):

  • Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were forcibly relocated due to the gold rush.

  • Colonel J.M. Chivington’s troops attacked and massacred about 400 Indians.

• Sioux War & Battle of Little Bighorn (1876–77):

  • Sioux, led by Chief Sitting Bull, resisted relocation from the Black Hills (gold discovered in 1875).

  • General Custer’s 264 men were annihilated by 2,500 warriors under Crazy Horse at Little Bighorn.

  • After the victory, the Sioux retreated to Canada under Sitting Bull.

• Nez Perce War (1877):

  • Led by Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce resisted relocation from Oregon and Idaho.

  • After a 1,500-mile retreat toward Canada, they were captured 30 miles from the border.

  • Promised a return to their homeland, they were instead sent to malaria-infected Kansas camps.

• Apache Resistance:

  • Some Apache adapted to reservation life, while others resisted under Geronimo and Cochise.

  • They fought a nine-year guerrilla war before surrendering and relocating.

• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890):

  • Sparked by the “Ghost Dance” movement, which settlers feared.

  • Sioux Chief was killed during an arrest attempt.

  • An accidental gunfire led to U.S. troops slaughtering 200+ Indians.

  • Marked the end of the Indian Wars.

Effects of the Indian Wars

• Public Awareness:

  • Helen Hunt Jackson’s book A Century of Dishonor (1881) exposed U.S. injustices against Indians.

• Indian Reservations (1890):

  • By 1890, all Indian tribes were confined to reservations.

  • Government involvement was minimal beyond initial establishment.

• Destruction of Buffalo:

  • U.S. policy encouraged buffalo slaughter to weaken Indian resistance.

  • Population dropped from 50 million (pre-war) to less than 1,000 (1885).

• Railroad Expansion:

  • Wars and relocations fueled railroad development.

  • Trains transported soldiers and relocated tribes.

• Cultural Devastation & Assimilation:

  • Loss of tribal lands and forced assimilation.

  • Indian children were sent to boarding schools where native culture was banned.

  • Indian population declined but later rebounded (from 243,000 in 1887 to over 2 million today).

Dawes Severalty Act (1887) & Its Consequences

• Land Redistribution:

  • Sponsored by Senator Henry Dawes.

  • Gave each Indian family head 160 acres of land.

  • U.S. government held land in trust for 25 years before granting ownership.

• Destruction of Tribal Identity:

  • Ended tribal land ownership.

  • Two-thirds of Indian lands were lost.

  • Stripped tribes of legal entity status.

• Indian Integration into White Society:

  • Indians were forced to interact with white merchants, teachers, and BIA agents.

  • Exposure to diseases and alcohol had negative effects.

• Cultural Survival Efforts:

  • Despite assimilation, modern leaders continue to fight for the preservation of Indian lands and heritage.