Native Americans Before European Contact
Pre-Colonization: Indigenous people lived in North America long before European settlers arrived.
Columbus' Misnomer: In the 15th century, Christopher Columbus mistakenly called the indigenous people “Indians,” a term that persisted until “Native Americans” became widely used.
Geographical Spread: Tribes were spread across North America, from coast to coast.
Introduction of Horses: Spanish explorers introduced horses to Plains Indians (16th–17th centuries), enabling them to travel faster and become nomadic, following buffalo herds for food, clothing, and shelter.
Tribal Organization and Culture
Social Structure:
Tribes were divided into smaller societies or “bands” (around 500 people each).
Chiefs served as religious, moral, and political leaders.
A governing council, composed of males, managed tribal affairs.
Men provided food, shelter, and protection, while women handled domestic duties.
Marriage & Unity:
Marriages outside the tribe were rare.
Tribes often clashed rather than cooperated, contributing to their inability to unite against white settlers.
Westward Expansion & Native Displacement
Early European Settlements: Indians along the Atlantic Coast moved westward as European settlers arrived.
U.S. Territorial Claims:
By the early 19th century, the U.S. government claimed most of North America.
Indians were initially allowed to remain but were subject to federal regulation.
Tribes were treated paradoxically as both independent nations and wards of the state.
Broken Treaties & Land Grabs:
Treaties between the U.S. and tribes required Senate ratification but were often ignored.
White settlers coveted Indian lands for agriculture and settlement.
Government officials frequently disregarded treaties, leading to unlawful removals of tribes.
Indian Relocation & Reservation Policies
Concentration Policy (1851):
Aimed to relocate Indians to less fertile land north and south of white settlements.
White settlers demanded more land, leading to further displacement.
Reservation System:
Tribes like the Sioux were confined to small areas (e.g., Black Hills, Dakota Territory).
Oklahoma became known as “Indian Territory.”
The policy was framed as protection but was primarily about seizing land.
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) (1836):
Initially under the Department of War, showing military control over Indians.
Later focused on overseeing reservations, but was plagued by corruption.
Officials often accepted bribes, allowing settlers to seize Indian land and resources.
Indian Resistance & the Indian Wars (Late 19th Century)
Constant Warfare: Indians resisted white encroachment, leading to ongoing battles.
Key Players:
U.S. military forces, including Civil War veterans and Black soldiers (Buffalo Regiment).
Generals like William T. Sherman, P.T. Sheridan, and George Custer led campaigns against Native tribes.
Major Conflicts
Sand Creek Massacre (1864):
Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were forcibly relocated due to the gold rush.
Colonel J.M. Chivington’s troops attacked and massacred about 400 Indians.
Sioux War & Battle of Little Bighorn (1876–77):
Sioux, led by Chief Sitting Bull, resisted relocation from the Black Hills (gold discovered in 1875).
General Custer’s 264 men were annihilated by 2,500 warriors under Crazy Horse at Little Bighorn.
After the victory, the Sioux retreated to Canada under Sitting Bull.
Nez Perce War (1877):
Led by Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce resisted relocation from Oregon and Idaho.
After a 1,500-mile retreat toward Canada, they were captured 30 miles from the border.
Promised a return to their homeland, they were instead sent to malaria-infected Kansas camps.
Apache Resistance:
Some Apache adapted to reservation life, while others resisted under Geronimo and Cochise.
They fought a nine-year guerrilla war before surrendering and relocating.
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890):
Sparked by the “Ghost Dance” movement, which settlers feared.
Sioux Chief was killed during an arrest attempt.
An accidental gunfire led to U.S. troops slaughtering 200+ Indians.
Marked the end of the Indian Wars.
Effects of the Indian Wars
Public Awareness:
Helen Hunt Jackson’s book A Century of Dishonor (1881) exposed U.S. injustices against Indians.
Indian Reservations (1890):
By 1890, all Indian tribes were confined to reservations.
Government involvement was minimal beyond initial establishment.
Destruction of Buffalo:
U.S. policy encouraged buffalo slaughter to weaken Indian resistance.
Population dropped from 50 million (pre-war) to less than 1,000 (1885).
Railroad Expansion:
Wars and relocations fueled railroad development.
Trains transported soldiers and relocated tribes.
Cultural Devastation & Assimilation:
Loss of tribal lands and forced assimilation.
Indian children were sent to boarding schools where native culture was banned.
Indian population declined but later rebounded (from 243,000 in 1887 to over 2 million today).
Dawes Severalty Act (1887) & Its Consequences
Land Redistribution:
Sponsored by Senator Henry Dawes.
Gave each Indian family head 160 acres of land.
U.S. government held land in trust for 25 years before granting ownership.
Destruction of Tribal Identity:
Ended tribal land ownership.
Two-thirds of Indian lands were lost.
Stripped tribes of legal entity status.
Indian Integration into White Society:
Indians were forced to interact with white merchants, teachers, and BIA agents.
Exposure to diseases and alcohol had negative effects.
Cultural Survival Efforts:
Despite assimilation, modern leaders continue to fight for the preservation of Indian lands and heritage.