History of Psychology Study Guide 2

Chapter 7

• Romanticism (Late 1700s-1800)

  • Romanticism was a cultural movement that emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature. It was a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the industrial revolution's impact on society. (Emotions, Instincts, Subjective, Experiences, Uniqueness)

    • How do we find truth?

      • Truth is found through human nature itself (feelings/emotions)

• Father of Romanticism - Jean Jacques Rousseau

  • Why did he believe humans don’t need to be governed?

    • Rousseau believed that humans are naturally good, and that society corrupts them. He argued that in a state of nature, people would live peacefully and harmoniously without the need for strict governance.

    • (Everyone is born good)

    • (Society and its institutions often corrupt this natural goodness)

    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau distrusted reason, organized religion, science, and societal law because he believed they often led to the corruption of natural human goodness and freedom. He argued that these institutions could justify inequality, impose rigid dogmas, overshadow emotional and spiritual well-being, and perpetuate social hierarchies, rather than promoting justice and the common good.

  • What is the concept of the noble savage?

    • the noble savage is the human being in the state of nature. It is a savage because it has no civilization and no philosophy. But it is noble because it lives a good life, not trying to hurt or exploit others.

  • What is the general will?

    • the collective will of the people that aims for the common good. It is the will of the majority that represents the best interests of society as a whole.

    • (What is best for the community (harmony w/others)

  • What were his views on education?

    • Rousseau's views on education are expressed in his book "Émile, or On Education." He believed education should focus on the natural development of the child and that learning should be based on curiosity and experience rather than rote memorization.

    • Did not believe in education equality in the context of gender

    • (Takes advantage of natural impulses)

• Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)

  • Will to survive/satisfaction of needs

    • Schopenhauer believed that the fundamental driving force in humans is the "will to survive," which is an irrational force that leads individuals to satisfy their basic needs and desires.

    • Universal Will

    • (Basic needs, reproduction, self-preservation, pursuit of pleasure)

  • What is Sunday neurosis?

    • Sunday neurosis refers to the feeling of existential dread and emptiness that people often experience on Sundays

  • Hierarchy of suffering

    • life is filled with suffering

    • gifted / geniuses suffered the most

  • What are his thoughts on life/death?

    • Schopenhauer viewed life as a constant struggle filled with suffering. He believed death was an inevitable release from the pains of life. However, he also saw the will to live as something that perpetuates suffering.

    • Life is a postponement of death

    • People fear death, not b/c life is pleasant

  • Sublimation/Denial

    • Relief from inner irrational fears

• Existentialism

  • Existentialism is a philosophical movement that focuses on individual existence, freedom, and choice. It emphasizes the idea that individuals create their meaning and purpose in life.

  • The point of life is to search for meaning

  • what is our purpose?

• Kierkegaard

  • very religious

  • Against organized religion

    • Truth is subjective & how this relates to God

      • Kierkegaard believed that truth is subjective and that each individual must find their own truth through personal experiences and faith. He argued that a relationship with God is deeply personal, emotional, and cannot be objectively proven.

      • truth is subjective

      • somethings cannot be proven, only felt

    • 3 stages of personal freedom

      • Aesthetic stage: Living for pleasure and personal satisfaction.

      • Ethical stage: Making moral choices and accepting responsibility.

      • Religious stage: A personal relationship with God, marked by faith and commitment.

• Nietzche (1344-1900)

  Revolted against everything: science, culture, philosophy, religion, morality, democracy

  • God is dead

    • we killed him

    • now, we’re lost w/no meaning/morality

    • reflects his belief that the traditional values and beliefs in God were no longer viable in the modern world. He argued that society needs to find new values and meanings.

  • What are supermen/overmen

    • The concept of the "Übermensch" (superman or overman) represents an individual who has transcended conventional morality and created their own values. Nietzsche believed that the Übermensch embodies strength, creativity, and self-determination.

    • Will to power: tendency > personal growth

    • Marching to one’s own drum

    • Can solve general human problems

    • Will to power: Answers to our own dilemmas are within ourselves, humans are irrational, inner/irrational forces should be given expressions

  • Why is pain the ultimate liberator?

    • Nietzsche believed that pain and suffering are essential for personal growth and transformation. He argued that overcoming pain leads to greater strength and self-realization.

    • (If you got test B, then the answer is “all of the above”)

  • Dionysian approach

    • The Dionysian approach represents chaos, emotion, and instinct. It is associated with creativity and the embrace of life's inherent irrationality.

    • Instincts

    • Indulging in fun -> alcohol, sex, etc.

    • Dionisis

    • Can be a type of avoidance

    • Escape from rational thinking

    • Can be destructive (Ex: addiction)

  • Apollonian approach

    • The Apollonian approach represents order, reason, and rationality. It is associated with structure, discipline, and the control of chaotic impulses.

    • Apollo, Illusions

    • Make life look beautify

Chapter 8

• Bell-Magendie Law

  • The Bell-Magendie Law, also known as the Law of Forward Conduction, describes the distinction between sensory and motor nerves. It states that the anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal cord contain motor fibers, while the posterior (dorsal) roots contain sensory fibers. This discovery was critical in understanding how nerves transmit signals to and from the brain.

  • Charles Bell (1774-1842): How nerves function

  • Sensory and motor functions – separate nerves

  • He and Magendie 11 years later – scientific proof

  • Bell-Magendie Law - Different nerves in spinal cord and brain

  • First to talk about functions about nerves

• Helmholtz (1821-1894)

  All of life can be explained by physical and chemical processes. Believed he could expand Bell’s theory (speed of nerves)

  The mind is active, Empiricism & rationalism

  Brought physics/chemistry/physiology/psychology together

  Experimental psych is born

  • Conservation of energy – applied to humans

    • Helmholtz applied the principle of conservation of energy to biological systems, asserting that energy within a closed system remains constant. This idea extended to human physiology, suggesting that all bodily functions, including muscle contractions, are governed by energy conservation principles.

    • (note to self: think of Steve)

  • Measured rates of nerve conduction (studied frogs & humans). How was this studied?

    • Helmholtz measured the speed of nerve conduction using experiments on frogs and humans. He stimulated nerves electrically and recorded the time taken for the impulse to travel between two points. This helped establish that nerve impulses travel at a finite speed.

    • Measured rate of nerve conduction

    • Frogs -> reaction time 90ft/sec

    • Humans 165-330ft/sec

    • Found: The closer stimuli were to primary muscle, faster response.

  • What is unconscious inference?

    • the process by which the brain automatically interprets sensory information based on past experiences. Helmholtz proposed that perception is not a direct result of sensory input but is shaped by unconscious cognitive processes.

  • Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision

    • The Young-Helmholtz theory posits that the human eye has three types of color receptors (cones) sensitive to red, green, and blue light. The combination of signals from these cones creates the perception of various colors. (did not include gray)

      • How did this explain color blindness?

        • Color blindness occurs when one or more types of cones are absent or not functioning correctly. For example, red-green color blindness results from the lack of or malfunction in the red or green cones.

    • Theory of auditory perception

      • Helmholtz's theory of auditory perception suggested that different frequencies of sound waves resonate with specific areas of the cochlea in the inner ear. This resonance allows the brain to perceive different pitches.

  • Side notes: sensation- Raw, perception- Thoughts that give meaning. Helmholtz pulled apart nerves. Found: no one nerve controls everything, can be backed withe evaluation.

• Hering (1834-1918)

  • Open-Process Theory of color

    • Hering's Opponent-Process Theory suggests that color perception is controlled by three opposing pairs of receptors: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. When one color in a pair is stimulated, the other is inhibited.

    • Metabolic processes, Afterimages, Neural processes beyond the retina

  • What is an afterimage?

    • a visual impression that remains after the initial stimulus is removed. For example, staring at a red image and then looking at a white surface may produce a green afterimage, explained by the Opponent-Process Theory.

• Christine Ladd Franklin

  • Research on color vision – evolutionary theory

    • Ladd-Franklin proposed an evolutionary theory of color vision, suggesting that color vision evolved in stages.

  • Color vision evolved in 3 stages

    • According to her theory, the ability to perceive 1) achromatic (black and white) vision came first, followed by 2) blue-yellow vision, and finally 3) red-green vision.

• What is phrenology?

  • a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It was based on the idea that specific brain areas correspond to particular personality characteristics and abilities.

• Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)

  • Accepted faculty psychology but made 3 additional claims

    • 1. mental facilities do not exist to the same extent as other ppl

    • 2. facilities were housed in specific areas of the brain

    • 3. if facilities were well developed, person will have dump (dent if not)

  • Attempted to relate certain personality traits and behavioral patterns to specific brain functions

    • number 3 from above. Gall believed that the shape and size of the skull could indicate a person's personality traits and behaviors, as these were linked to the underlying brain regions.

  • Where was the Central Phrenological Society Founded?

    • he Central Phrenological Society was founded in Philadelphia 1822

  • Who was Phineas Gage? (1848)

    • Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod penetrated his skull (prefrontal cortex). His case provided valuable insights into the relationship between brain function and personality, as Gage exhibited significant changes in behavior and personality after the accident.

  • Broca’s Area – what does damage do?

    • Broca's area (1861), located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is responsible for speech production. Damage to Broca's area results in Broca's aphasia, characterized by difficulty in forming coherent speech while retaining comprehension.

    • First autopsy – aphasia, Speech center, first to observe a disorder, then locate part of the brain

  • Wernicke’s Area (1876) – what does damage do?

    • Wernicke's area, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension. Damage to Wernicke's area results in Wernicke's aphasia, characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech and difficulty understanding language.

    • Part of the brain related to understanding language

• Weber (1795-1878)

  • Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

    • The Just Noticeable Difference is the minimum amount of change in a stimulus that can be detected. Weber's Law states that the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.

    • (relative, not absolute)

    • Side note: Touch and Kinesthesis (muscles). Weber’s law is the first quantitative law in Psychology

• Fechner (1801-1887) Founder of psychophysics

  • Absolute Threshold

    • The absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time. It represents the lowest level at which a person can perceive a stimulus.

    • Side note:

      • Wanted to figure out mind/body problem

      • 1850: Mathematical relationship between physical and psychological events

      • S = k log R

      • Absolute threshold (above)

Chapter 9

• Voluntarism (First School of Psychology)

  • Voluntarism, pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt, emphasizes the power of the will in organizing the mind's contents. It posits that psychological processes are controlled by volitional acts (will, choice, purpose). Was still according to mental laws (determinism)

• Wundt (1832-1920) (considered the father of modern psychology.)

  • Started voluntarism

    • Wundt's voluntarism focused on the idea that voluntary effort and consciousness play a crucial role in psychological processes.

  • Started first experimental psych lab in the world – 1879

    • Wundt established the first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental and scientific field. It dominated the field of psychology for 30 yrs. Most prolific (53k+ pages). Learning the simpler/immediate can help to understand the higher/more complex consciousness

  • Attention – we can only attend to 1 thing at a time

    • Wundt proposed that human attention is selective and limited, meaning we can only focus on one thing at a time. This selective attention enables us to process specific information while ignoring other stimuli.

      • We attend to only one thing at a time

      • Can switch our attention in 1/10 of a second

      • Attention switching is voluntary

  • What did he mean by behavior is motivated?

    • “Most behavior and selective attention is motivated”

      • Wundt believed that behavior is driven by internal motivations and desires, which are rooted in consciousness. He emphasized that our actions are influenced by underlying psychological processes and volitional acts.

  • What was his tridimensional theory of feelings?

    • Wundt's tridimensional theory of feelings suggests that emotions can be classified into three dimensions:

      1. Pleasure-Unpleasant: The degree to which an experience is enjoyable or unpleasant.

      2. Excitement-Calm: The level of arousal or tranquility associated with the experience.

      3. Strain-Relaxation: The degree of tension or relaxation felt during the experience.

      • Ex: Joy (pleasant, excitement, relaxation) Sadness (unpleasant, strain, calm)

  • Side note: Understanding Consciousness

    • Opposed materialism and empiricism

    • There must be mental laws

    • Voluntarism: will/choice

    • But this is all according to laws – so not free will

    • Immediate consciousness: can use experimental psych

    • Higher mental process: only natural observation

    Perception: passive/automatic

    • Influenced by physical stimulus, anatomy, and past experiences

    • Apperception: Borrowed from Herbart

    • Attention is active

    • Creative Synthesis

    • Elements can be arranged and re-arranged

  • wanted to understand consciousness. believed humans were far more complex than physics & sensory. work often got mistranslated (ppl disliked him b/c of this misunderstanding)

• Structural (Second School of Psychology)

  • focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components.

• Titchener (1867-1927)

  • Started structuralism

    • Titchener aimed to analyze consciousness by identifying its basic elements using introspection. He believed that understanding the structure of the mind could reveal how thoughts and sensations are organized.

    • Sought pure knowledge for its own sake

    • Not interested in if it’s useful

    • Goals: what/how/why of mental life: wanted to describe, not explain

    • translated Wundt’s work

  • Who were The Experimentalists?

    • known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists, was a group founded by Titchener in 1904. It consisted of prominent psychologists who met to discuss research and experimental methods.

    • In contrast to American Psychological Association (APA) (1892)

    • Very elite – invite only

    • No women allowed

  • Why weren’t women allowed in The Experimentalists?

    • Titchener excluded women from The Experimentalists due to the prevailing gender biases of the time. He believed that women were not suited for the rigorous intellectual discussions held by the group.

  • What did he believe consciousness consisted of?

    • Titchener believed consciousness consisted of sensations, images, and affections. Sensations were the raw data of experience, images were mental representations, and affections were emotional responses.

  • Side note: introspection: more complex than Wundt’s

    • Carefully trained to not report the meaning of a stimulus. Basic raw elements from experiences. ex. Apple (red, round, smooth, DETAILS)

  • Laws of association; rejected creative synthesis & apperception

    • Attention: attribute of clear sensation

  • (Creative Synthesis is a concept from Wundt's psychology that suggests the mind actively organizes and combines elements into new forms. Titchener rejected this idea, believing that mental elements are passively combined rather than actively synthesized. Apperception refers to the process by which new experiences are assimilated into existing mental frameworks. Titchener also rejected this concept, arguing that attention is simply a matter of clarity of sensations.)

    • Neural process proceeds

• Washburn (1859-1935)

  • First woman to earn a PhD in psychology – 1894

    • Washburn was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology, awarded by Cornell University in 1894. Studied under Titchener.

  • Motor theory of consciousness

    • Washburn's motor theory of consciousness proposed that mental activity is grounded in motor processes. She believed that thought is intrinsically linked to bodily movement.

    • Motor theory of consciousness

      • Excitation & inhibition of motor discharge

    • thinking was based in movement. Consciousness is linked to motor activity.

    • Animal Psychology: Some sensory experience animals have been similar to humans.

• Husserl (1859-1935)

  • Father of phenomenology

    • Husserl established phenomenology, a philosophical approach that focuses on the structures of experience and consciousness.

  • Why was he against scientific psychology?

    • Husserl critiqued scientific psychology for neglecting the subjective aspects of human experience. He argued that psychology should study consciousness and lived experiences from a first-person perspective.

    • Against experimentalism without first engaging in phenomenological analysis

    • Psych was trying to mold its science around other natural sciences

  • Intentional Consciousness

    • Husserl introduced the concept of intentionality, which refers to the idea that consciousness is always directed toward something. Intentional consciousness means that mental acts are about objects or states of affairs.

    • everyone will leave with a different experience

    • collective experience, different perspective

    • “if we can acknowledge bias, we can get passed them to attain knowledge of the general experience.

    • Studying oneself inward

    • Studying subjective experience as it occurs

    • Pure phenomenology: introspection should be focusing on essences of mental processes

    • Phenomenological reduction

    • Phenomenological background needs to come first

    • Goals: create taxonomy of the mind

Chapter 10

• What are the 3 areas of research in psychology?

  1. Experimental: focuses on using scientific methods to investigate psychological phenomena. Researchers in this field design-controlled experiments to test hypotheses about behavior, cognition, and emotion. They aim to identify cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables and observing their effects on participants.

  2. Measurement of individual differences/abilities: This area involves studying the variations in psychological traits and abilities among individuals. Researchers develop and use various assessment tools, such as intelligence tests, personality inventories, and aptitude tests, to measure these differences. This field helps us understand how people differ in cognitive abilities, personality traits, and other psychological characteristics.

  3. Studies of abnormal symptoms & treatments: This area, often referred to as Abnormal Psychology or Clinical Psychology, focuses on understanding, diagnosing, and treating mental disorders and abnormal behavior. Researchers and clinicians study the symptoms, causes, and treatments of psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and more. They aim to develop effective therapeutic interventions to help individuals manage and overcome these conditions.

• Lamarck (Early 1800s)

  • Studied how fossils – species change over time

    • Lamarck studied fossils and observed that species appeared to change over time. He proposed that organisms evolve by adapting to their environment and that these changes are reflected in the fossil record.

    • Found species change over time

    • Inheritance of Acquired Traits

  • Inheritance of acquired traits

    • Lamarck theorized that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime could be passed on to its offspring. For example, he suggested that giraffes' long necks resulted from ancestors stretching to reach higher foliage and that this trait was inherited by subsequent generations.

• Spencer (Late 1800s)

  • Spencer-Bain Principle

    • The Spencer-Bain Principle states that behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. This principle laid the groundwork for later behaviorist theories.

    • A person persists in behavior that is conducive to survival

  • Survival of the fittest

    • Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest," referring to the idea that individuals or species best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. This concept is closely related to natural selection.

  • What is Social Darwinism?

    • Social Darwinism is the application of evolutionary principles to social and economic issues. It suggests that human societies and institutions evolve through competition and natural selection, with the "fittest" individuals or groups thriving. This concept has been criticized for justifying inequality and exploitation.

    • Compatible with US capitalism & individualism

• Darwin (1809-1882)

  • Theory of evolution

    • Darwin's theory of evolution posits that species change over time through the process of natural selection. Organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to future generations.

    • Waited 20 years to publish his theory (Earth wasn’t “old” enough yet)

  • What is natural selection?

    • Natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. It involves the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits, leading to the gradual accumulation of those traits in a population. (not originally applied to humans)

  • Why did his theory of evolution cause problems with the church?

    • Darwin's theory of evolution challenged the traditional religious belief in divine creation. It suggested that species, including humans, evolved through natural processes rather than being created by a divine being. This caused significant controversy and conflict with the church.

  • Evolution of emotions

    • Darwin explored the evolution of emotions in his work "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals." He proposed that emotional expressions have adaptive value and are inherited traits that evolved to enhance communication and survival.

    • “The Expression of Emotions in Men and Animals”

    • Facial expressions, Universality of facial expressions & Emotions not unique to humans

    • Facial expressions may have been necessary for survival at one point

    • Ex: TikTok trend: bear, test = fear

• Galton (1822-1911)

  Believed intelligence was heritage. Wanted dumb ppl to stop having kids.

  • Wanted to measure intelligence

    • Galton aimed to quantify intelligence and other mental traits using various tests and measurements. He believed that intelligence could be objectively measured and compared.

    • Measurement of Intelligence

    • Intelligence related to sensory acuity

    • Eugenics: Selective Breeding

    • Improve general intelligence

  • Supported eugenics based on intelligence (what are eugenics? How could this be problematic)

    • Eugenics is the practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population by selective breeding. It aimed to increase the prevalence of desirable traits and reduce the occurrence of undesirable traits.

      • Eugenics is problematic because it often led to discriminatory practices, forced sterilizations, and violations of human rights. It has been associated with unethical and harmful policies.

  • Extreme nativist

    • Galton was a strong proponent of nativism, the belief that intelligence and other traits are primarily determined by genetics rather than the environment.

    • First to talk about this Nature v. Nurture

    • He was all the way on the nature side

  • First to study twins

    • Galton conducted the first studies on twins to explore the influence of heredity and environment on human traits. He used these studies to support his nativist views.

  • First to use correlation/scatter plots

    • Galton developed statistical methods, including correlation and scatter plots, to study the relationships between variables. His work laid the foundation for modern statistical analysis.

      • First to use word association test

      • Studied imagery

      • Women and children are more detailed

      • First to use correlation

      • One of psychology’s most widely used statistical methods

      • Figured out scatter plot

      • Pearson: added the math

• Binet (1857-1911)

  Father of experimental psychology in France, influenced by Darwin & Galton. Worked with Simon at institution for children with intellectual disabilities

  • 1903: Appointed to come up with a test to study the

  problems of these children in schools

  • First intelligence test created in 1905: Binet-Simon Scale of Intelligence

    • Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon developed the Binet-Simon Scale to identify children with learning difficulties. The test measured various cognitive abilities to assess intelligence.

    • 30 tests, 3 motor, 27 cognitive

    • Ages 2-12

    • Saw intelligence as not just one single ability

  • Did not accept nativism

    • Binet did not believe that intelligence was solely determined by genetics. He emphasized the role of environmental factors and the potential for intellectual growth.

  • Why did he worry about students in classes where teachers saw intelligence as innate?

    • Binet worried that if teachers believed intelligence was fixed and innate, they might not provide adequate support and encouragement for students to develop their abilities. This could negatively impact students' academic growth and self-esteem.

  • 1908 revision - Goal to go beyond simply distinguishing “normal” children from “disabled” children to distinguishing levels of intelligence among “normal” children

    • The 1908 revision of the Binet-Simon Scale aimed to go beyond distinguishing "normal" children from "disabled" children. It sought to differentiate levels of intelligence among "normal" children to better understand their cognitive abilities

    • • 1908 Revision: 58 Tests –different levels of normal

      • 19011 Revision: normative data on adults

      • Intelligence level vs. intellectual age

      • 1911: IQ – William Stern

  • Side note: intelligence was too complex to be represented by one number. By WWI, his IQ test was used all over the world. Believed intelligence can be nurtured

• Goddard

  • Translated Binet-Simon to English

    • Goddard translated the Binet-Simon Scale into English and introduced it to the United States, making it widely available for use in educational and psychological settings

  • Supported eugenics

    • Goddard supported eugenics and believed that intelligence was largely hereditary. He advocated for policies to prevent the reproduction of individuals with low intelligence.

  • Tested immigrants – thousands were deported (1905-1913)

    • Goddard used intelligence tests on immigrants at Ellis Island, leading to the classification of many as "feebleminded" and unfit for entry into the United States. This resulted in the deportation of thousands of immigrants.

    • 20 states passed sterilization (up until one 1970s)

• Terman (1877-1956)

  Interested in mental testing

  • 1916: Stanford-Binet (modified Binet-Simon)

    • Terman revised the Binet-Simon Scale, creating the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. This test became a widely used measure of intelligence in the United States.

    • • Used Stern’s IQ ratio

      • Revised 1937, 1960

      • Intelligence is inherited

  • Supported eugenics/sterilization

    • Terman supported eugenics and believed that selective breeding could improve human intelligence.

  • Believed low intelligence was the cause of most criminal behavior

    • Terman argued that low intelligence was a significant factor in criminal behavior and advocated for policies to address this issue.

  • Studied geniuses

    • Terman conducted longitudinal studies on intellectually gifted children, known as the "Termites," to understand their development and success over time.

    • Wanted to dispel myth that geniuses use up their intelligence early

      • Longest longitudinal study (more than 80 years)

      • Terman’s “Termites”

      • Began 1921,

      • Still supported by Stanford University

• Hollingworth (1886-1939)

  • Studied gifted children

    • Hollingworth researched the characteristics and needs of gifted children, advocating for appropriate educational support to help them reach their potential.

  • Women & IQ – what did she find?

    • Hollingworth found that there were no significant differences in intelligence between men and women. She challenged the prevailing belief that women were intellectually inferior to men.

  • Side note: Functional Periodicity” Dissertation – 1914

    • No evidence that IQ goes down during menstruation

    • Said women are not intellectually inferior

    • Social roles don’t allow for advancement

    • Got doctorate under Thorndike from Colombia

    • Myths of mentally defective

    • Education program for gifted

    • Testing/ability in elementary schools by 1930

• Wechsler (1896-1981)

  • Created modern day IQ tests – WAIS & WISC

    • Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). These tests measure various cognitive abilities and provide a comprehensive assessment of intelligence.

  • Side Notes: Developed new intelligence test just before WWII

    • Resolved some of the psychometric issues from original Stanford-Binet

    • Produced WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) & WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)

    • Stanford Binet eventually revised to match scoring on WAIS/WISC

Chapter 11

• Functionalism (School of Psychology)

  • focuses on the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior. It emphasizes how mental and behavioral processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

  • Opposed breaking consciousness into elements. Understand the function of the mind, rather than describe its components. Practical (applied). Biological (Darwin) rather than physiological. Studying non-human animals. Importance of motivation. Accepted the combination of mental processes and behavior as the study of psychology. Individual differences. Influenced by evolution.

• William James (1842-1910)

  Experienced a lot of ambivalence -> became very depressed

  • If “survival of the fittest” + materialism, then there is no freedom or choice, no hope!

  • Resolved: “My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will”

  • What is pragmatism?

    • Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application. James believed that the truth of an idea is determined by its practical effects and usefulness.

    • If an idea works, it is valid – usefulness

  • Started first psychology teaching lab in US – 1875

    • James established the first psychology teaching laboratory in the United States at Harvard University in 1875, marking a significant milestone in the development of psychology as an academic discipline.

    • Only a teaching lab, no experiments

  • Wrote most well-known psych textbook – The Principles of Psychology – 1890

    • James authored "The Principles of Psychology," a landmark work that provided a comprehensive overview of psychological theories and concepts. Published in 1890, it remains one of the most influential psychology textbooks.

    • No one organized theory

    • Themes: practicality (pragmatism) and individuality

    • Challenging, guiding, preparation for new studies

    • Criticism of Wundt’s experimental approach

    • Wundt criticized him back

  • Stream of consciousness

    • James introduced the concept of the "stream of consciousness," describing consciousness as a continuous and ever-changing flow of thoughts, sensations, and experiences.

    • Consciousness is personal, continuous, cannot be divided up, constantly changing, selective, functional

    • Aids in adapting to environment

  • What is an instinctive behavior?

    • Instinctive behavior refers to innate, automatic, and fixed patterns of behavior that occur in response to specific stimuli. These behaviors are hardwired in an organism and do not require learning or experience.

    • Instinctive behavior can be modified by experience

  • How to develop habits?

    • James believed habits are formed through repeated actions. To develop a habit, one should:

      1. Repetition

      2. Functionality

      3. Social order

  • How to change habits?

    1. Start with a strong and decided initiative

    2. Do it all at once -> cold turkey

    3. Never allow exceptions

    4. Tell someone you are changing habit

    5. Stay away from situations that would promote old habit

  • Ideo-motor theory

    • The ideo-motor theory suggests that merely thinking about a movement can lead to the automatic execution of that movement. This theory highlights the connection between thoughts and physical actions.

    • We choose our actions by choosing our thoughts

      • What we think determines/influences what we do

      • What we do determines/influences what we feel

      • Psychical research

      • Researching the paranormal (board)

  • What are the 2 parts of the self and what are they each comprised of?

    • The "I" (Subjective Self): The "I" is the self as the knower, the active agent that experiences and interacts with the world.

      The "Me" (Objective Self): The "Me" is the self as the known, consisting of:

      Material Self: One's body, possessions, and physical surroundings.

      Social Self: The self as perceived by others and shaped by social interactions.

      Spiritual Self: One's inner thoughts, beliefs, and values.

    • —

    • The Self

      • The empirical self/known: The “me”

      • The knower self: The “I”

      • First to look at self-esteem

      • Precursor to Carl Rogers’s theory

  • How did he define self-esteem? How can you improve self-esteem?

    • James defined self-esteem as the ratio of one's successes to one's aspirations. To improve self-esteem, he suggested:

      Increasing successes by setting and achieving realistic goals.

      Lowering aspirations to match achievable outcomes.

    • Self-esteem=Success/pretentions

  • James-Lange Theory of Emotions

    • The James-Lange Theory posits that emotions result from physiological reactions to events. According to this theory, an external stimulus leads to a physiological response, and the perception of this response is experienced as an emotion.

    • Emotions: James-Lange Theory

      • Sensory perception -> bodily reaction -> experiencing emotion

      • Act the way you want to feel

• Calkins (1863-1930)

  • 1st woman to teach experimental psychology

    • Calkins was the first woman to teach experimental psychology, making significant contributions to the field despite facing gender-based barriers.1st women’s lab at women’s college

    • Designated 1st woman to teach experimental psych at Wellesley; took seminars at Harvard

    • James was working at Harvard and vouched for her

    • James ended up teaching her 1:1 at Harvard

    • Later researched under Munsterberg (1891)

    • 1st women’s lab at women’s college (1891)

    • Ironically, against feminism

  • Memory – what did she find related to frequency, recency, and vividness?

    • Calkins conducted research on memory and discovered that the frequency, recency, and vividness of experiences influence their memorability. She found that frequently encountered, recently experienced, and vividly perceived events are more likely to be remembered.

    • • Paired-associates technique

      • Frequency, recency, vividness

      • Secondary/short-term memory

  • 1st woman president of APA – 1905

    • Calkins became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905, marking a significant milestone in the recognition of women in psychology.

    • Was refused PhD from Harvard

• Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

  • First to receive a doctorate in psychology – 1878

    • Hall received the first doctorate in psychology awarded in the United States from Harvard University in 1878.

  • First US experimental psych lab – 1883

    • He established the first experimental psychology laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University in 1883.

      • 1887: U.S. Journal: American Journal of Psychology

  • Founded APA – 1892

    • Hall founded the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892 and served as its first president, contributing to the organization and development of the field.

  • Side note: Everyone, during development, goes through stages of evolution

    • Adolescence: Between childhood & adults

    • Against co-ed schools

    • Interesting thoughts on gender differences

• Sumner (1895-1954)

• 1920: Became first Black person to be awarded a PhD in Psychology

  • Sumner became the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology in 1920, making significant contributions to the field and advocating for the inclusion of African American perspectives in psychological research.

  • Side note: Born 30 years after abolishment of slavery

    • Little secondary & higher education available

    • B.A. from Lincoln in 1915

    • Rejected from a number of doctoral programs because of race

    • Hall accepted him at Clark University

    • Drafted 1918-1919 in WWI

• Kenneth Clark & Mary Phipps Clark

  • The Clarks were influential psychologists known for their work on racial segregation and its effects on children.

  • Doll Study – what was it and what did they find?

    • The Clarks conducted the famous "Doll Study," in which African American children were asked to choose between dolls of different races. The study revealed that many children preferred white dolls over black dolls, indicating internalized racism and the negative effects of segregation on self-esteem. Their findings played a crucial role in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case, which led to the desegregation of schools.

    • Doll study & Summer’s influence:

      • Howard University (1928-present). Many Black psychologists. Including Kenneth Clark & Marry Phipps Clark – PhDs from Colombia. Famous 1939/1940 doll study

      • Kids favored white dolls

      • Developmental effects of prejudice, discrimination, and segregation

      • 1954 - Supreme Court case: Brown vs. Board of Education -> ended legal segregation (psychologically

      damaging)

      • APA still did not embrace racial/multicultural issues

• Thorndike

  Connector of functionalism & behaviorism, didn’t like psy until he read James’s book

  • Animal learning in controlled lab

    • Thorndike conducted experiments on animal learning using controlled laboratory settings, focusing on how animals learn through trial and error.

  • What was his puzzle box and what did he find?

    • Thorndike's puzzle box was an experimental apparatus used to study animal learning. Animals, typically cats, were placed in a box and had to solve a puzzle (e.g., pulling a lever) to escape and receive a reward. Thorndike found that animals learned to perform the necessary actions through trial and error, and their performance improved with practice.

    • Brought study of animal learning into controlled lab

      • Puzzle box study with cats

      • Connectionism (S-R bonds): 3 main conclusions

      • Learning is incremental

      • Learning occurs automatically

      • No insight, reasoning, or association of ideas

      • Applies to all mammals

  • Law of exercise

    • The Law of Exercise states that the more an action is repeated, the stronger the connection becomes between the stimulus and the response. Practice leads to learning and improved performance.

    • More you do something, more you learn it

  • Law of effect

    • The Law of Effect posits that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

    • Association is followed by “satisfying state of affairs”

      it would be strengthened

    • Association is followed by an “annoying state of

      affairs” it would be weakened

  • After 1930, got rid of law of exercise and 2nd part of law of effect

  • What is the transfer of training?

    • Transfer of Training refers to the application of skills or knowledge learned in one context to new, similar contexts. It examines how learning in one area can influence performance in other areas.

    • Degree of similarity between 2 situations

      • Positive

      • Negative

  • Side note:

    Known as greatest learning theorist of all time

    • Paved the way for Skinner

    • Not exactly a behaviorist

    • Used mentalistic terms

    • Did not completely abandon introspection