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Chapter 9

1. Language & Its Properties

Language is a system of communication using symbols (words, gestures, or sounds) that follow structured rules.

Key Properties of Language

1. Symbolic – Words, gestures, and sounds represent ideas (e.g., the word "apple" represents a fruit, but it doesn’t look or sound like an apple).

2. Structured – Words follow grammatical rules (syntax), so order matters (e.g., "The dog chased the cat" vs. "The cat chased the dog").

3. Generativity – We can create unlimited new sentences from a finite set of words (e.g., "The blue cat danced under the moon" is a sentence you've likely never heard before).

4. Displacement – We can talk about things that are not present, including the past, future, or imaginary concepts (e.g., "Tomorrow I will visit Mars").

2. Surface vs. Deep Structure

• Surface Structure – The arrangement of words in a sentence (syntax).

  • Example: "John kissed Mary" vs. "Mary was kissed by John" (same meaning, different surface structure).

• Deep Structure – The underlying meaning of the sentence (semantics).

  • Example: "Let's eat, Grandma!" vs. "Let's eat Grandma!" (same surface words, different deep meaning).

3. Components of Language

• Phonemes – The smallest units of sound in a language (e.g., "ch," "b," "t").

  • English has about 46 phonemes, while some languages have more or fewer.

• Morphemes – The smallest units of meaning (e.g., "un-", "-ed", "cat").

  • "Unhappiness" → "Un-" (not) + "happy" (emotion) + "-ness" (state of being).

4. Language Processing

• Bottom-Up Processing – Understanding language by analyzing small details (e.g., hearing individual sounds before forming words).

• Top-Down Processing – Understanding language using prior knowledge and context (e.g., recognizing a jumbled sentence because of expectations).

5. Brain & Language

• Broca’s Area (frontal lobe) – Controls speech production.

  • Damage leads to Broca’s aphasia (difficulty speaking but understanding remains intact).

• Wernicke’s Area (temporal lobe) – Controls language comprehension.

  • Damage leads to Wernicke’s aphasia (speech is fluent but meaningless).

• Aphasia – A language disorder caused by brain damage.

6. Language Acquisition

• Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – Noam Chomsky’s idea that humans are biologically wired to learn language.

• Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) – Social interactions that help children learn language (e.g., parents talking to babies).

Stages of Language Development

1. Cooing (1-3 months) – Making vowel-like sounds.

2. Babbling (6-12 months) – Combining consonants and vowels (e.g., "ba-ba").

3. One-word stage (12-18 months) – Saying single words ("milk," "dog").

4. Two-word stage (18-24 months) – Using basic two-word sentences ("want cookie").

7. Theories of Language Development

• Biological Perspective – Humans are naturally wired for language (Chomsky’s LAD).

• Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) – Children learn language through reinforcement and imitation.

  • Criticism: Parents usually correct meaning, not grammar (e.g., they correct "wrong word" errors but not "bad grammar").

• Sensitive Period Hypothesis – Language is easiest to learn in childhood.

  • Example: Children who are not exposed to language before puberty may never fully acquire it (e.g., Genie, the feral child).

8. Bilingualism

• Learning a second language before puberty leads to better fluency and cognitive benefits (e.g., better problem-solving skills).

9. Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

• Does language shape thought?

  • Strong version (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) – Language determines thinking.

  • Weak version (current view) – Language influences thinking but does not control it completely.

• Example: Some languages have multiple words for snow, which may affect how speakers perceive different types of snow.

10. Thinking & Mental Representations

• Propositional Thought – Statements expressing facts (e.g., "The sky is blue").

• Imaginal Thought – Mental images we "see" in our mind (e.g., imagining a beach).

• Motoric Thought – Mental simulations of movements (e.g., visualizing a golf swing).

11. Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning – General principle → Specific conclusion.

  • Example: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Inductive Reasoning – Specific facts → General principle.

  • Example: "Every swan I’ve seen is white. Therefore, all swans must be white."

12. Problem-Solving & Decision-Making

• Algorithms – Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution (e.g., math formulas).

• Heuristics – Mental shortcuts for quick decisions.

  • Representativeness Heuristic – Judging something based on how similar it is to a prototype.

    • Example: Assuming someone is a librarian because they wear glasses.

  • Availability Heuristic – Judging something based on how easily examples come to mind.

    • Example: Thinking plane crashes are common because of media coverage.

13. Problem-Solving Barriers

• Mental Set – Sticking to old solutions instead of finding new ones.

• Functional Fixedness – Seeing objects only in their usual function.

  • Example: Not realizing you can use a book as a doorstop.

• Confirmation Bias – Seeking information that supports existing beliefs.

• Overconfidence – Overestimating how accurate our knowledge is.

14. Creativity & Insight

• Divergent Thinking – Thinking of multiple possible solutions.

• Incubation – Stepping away from a problem and letting ideas "marinate" in your mind.

15. Metacognition (Thinking About Thinking)

• Metacomprehension – Awareness of what you understand and what you don’t.

• Metamemory – Awareness of how well you remember things.

Chapter 10

1. What is Intelligence?

• Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, think and reason effectively, and adapt to the environment.

• Culture-specific: What is considered "intelligent" varies across cultures.

2. Early Theories of Intelligence

Sir Francis Galton

• Believed intelligence was inherited (nature over nurture).

• Early attempts at measuring intelligence focused on reaction time and sensory abilities.

Alfred Binet & Intelligence Testing

• Developed the first intelligence test.

• Two key assumptions:

  1. Mental abilities develop with age.

  2. Rate of mental development is stable over time.

• Introduced the concept of mental age (e.g., if a 7-year-old performs like a typical 9-year-old, their mental age is 9).

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) – Stern’s Formula

• IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

• Works well for children but less effective for adults.

3. Major Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

• Revised version of Binet’s test.

• Focuses on verbal reasoning and provides a single IQ score.

Wechsler Intelligence Scales (More commonly used today)

• Includes:

  • WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale).

  • WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children).

  • WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence).

• Measures both verbal and performance (non-verbal) skills.

• Provides multiple subtest scores instead of just one IQ score.

4. How Do We Measure Intelligence?

Two Major Approaches

1. Psychometric Approach

   • Uses factor analysis to identify clusters of abilities.

   • Aims to map out the structure of intelligence.

2. Cognitive Process Approach

   • Studies the thought processes involved in intelligence.

   • Focuses on how we think rather than just test scores.

5. Theories of Intelligence

1. Spearman’s g-Factor Theory

• g-factor (General Intelligence): A single underlying intelligence that influences all tasks.

• s-factor (Specific Abilities): Skills relevant to particular tasks.

2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

• Argued intelligence is not a single factor.

• Identified 7 primary abilities, including verbal comprehension, numerical ability, and memory.

3. Cattell’s Two-Factor Theory

• Crystallized Intelligence: Applying past knowledge to solve problems (e.g., vocabulary, general knowledge).

• Fluid Intelligence: Solving new problems without prior knowledge (e.g., pattern recognition, logical reasoning).

• Crystallized intelligence increases with age, while fluid intelligence declines.

4. Carroll’s Three-Stratum Model

• Intelligence exists at three levels:

  1. General (g) – Overall intelligence.

  2. Broad – Fluid & crystallized intelligence, memory, speed, etc.

  3. Narrow – Specific abilities within each broad category.

5. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

• Three types of intelligence:

  1. Analytical Intelligence – Problem-solving, reasoning, logic (tested in IQ tests).

  2. Practical Intelligence – Adapting to real-world situations ("street smarts").

  3. Creative Intelligence – Ability to generate new ideas and solutions.

6. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• 8 independent intelligences:

  1. Linguistic – Language skills.

  2. Logical-Mathematical – Problem-solving, math.

  3. Spatial – Visualizing objects, directions.

  4. Musical – Recognizing and creating music.

  5. Bodily-Kinesthetic – Physical coordination.

  6. Interpersonal – Understanding others.

  7. Intrapersonal – Self-awareness.

  8. Naturalistic – Recognizing patterns in nature.

• Possible 9th intelligence: Existential (philosophical thinking).

7. Emotional Intelligence (EI) – Daniel Goleman

• Ability to understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

• 4 main components:

  1. Perceiving emotions (recognizing feelings).

  2. Understanding emotions (what they mean).

  3. Managing emotions (controlling reactions).

  4. Using emotions (for problem-solving).

6. Measuring Intelligence: Types of Tests

1. Achievement Tests – Measure what a person has already learned (e.g., school exams).

2. Aptitude Tests – Measure potential for future learning (e.g., SAT, IQ tests).

7. What Makes a Good Psychological Test?

• Reliability (Consistency):

  • Test-retest reliability – Scores should be stable over time.

  • Internal consistency – All test items should measure the same thing.

  • Interjudge reliability – Scores should be the same regardless of who evaluates them.

• Validity (Accuracy):

  • Construct validity – Does the test measure intelligence?

  • Content validity – Do the test items reflect intelligence-related skills?

  • Criterion validity – Do test scores predict real-world outcomes (e.g., job success)?

8. The Flynn Effect

• IQ scores have increased over time (~28 points since 1910).

• Possible reasons:

  • Better education

  • Improved nutrition

  • More exposure to technology

9. Intelligence and the Brain

• Brain size is not strongly correlated with intelligence.

• Efficiency matters more (higher IQ individuals show lower glucose consumption in brain scans).

• Neural plasticity (ability to form new connections) may explain intelligence differences.

• Gender differences:

  • Males: More grey matter (information processing).

  • Females: More white matter (brain connectivity).

10. Heredity vs. Environment in Intelligence

• Genes play a strong role, but environment also significantly influences IQ.

• Children adopted from deprived environments can gain 10-12 IQ points.

• IQ differences between ethnic groups are narrowing over time.

11. Extremes of Intelligence

Giftedness

• People with IQs above 130.

• Often excel in creativity, problem-solving, and dedication.

Cognitive Disabilities

• IQ below 70.

• Can range from mild (can live independently) to severe (requires full-time care).

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Chapter 11

1. What is Motivation?

• Motivation: The process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-directed behavior.

• Influences:

  1. Direction – What goal we pursue.

  2. Persistence – How long we stay committed.

  3. Vigor – How much effort we put in.

2. Theories of Motivation

Instinct Theory (Outdated)

• Early theory: Humans have innate, biologically determined behaviors (e.g., maternal instinct).

• Problems:

  • Too simplistic.

  • Can lead to circular reasoning (e.g., "Why do we eat? Because we have a hunger instinct").

Evolutionary Psychology

• Modern perspective: We are motivated to engage in behaviors that increase survival & reproduction.

• Example: Social bonding helps ensure survival.

Drive Theory (Biological Perspective)

• Homeostasis: The body’s natural balance (e.g., temperature, hunger).

• Drives: Internal imbalances push organisms to restore balance (e.g., thirst → drinking water).

Incentive Theory

• Incentives "pull" behavior, while drive theory suggests we are "pushed" into action.

• Example: Studying for a test to earn good grades (external reward).

Expectancy x Value Theory

• Motivation = Expectancy (belief behavior leads to a goal) × Incentive value (importance of goal).

• Example: If you believe studying hard will help you pass (high expectancy) and passing is important (high value), you are highly motivated.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something because it’s enjoyable (e.g., painting for fun).

• Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for external rewards (e.g., working for a paycheck).

Psychodynamic Theory (Freud)

• Unconscious motives shape our behavior.

• Freud emphasized sexual and aggressive drives, while modern theorists also include self-esteem and social belonging.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Humanistic View)

• We are motivated to fulfill basic needs before higher growth needs.

• Hierarchy:

  1. Physiological needs (food, water).

  2. Safety needs (security, stability).

  3. Love & belongingness (relationships, social bonds).

  4. Esteem needs (self-respect, recognition).

  5. Self-actualization (achieving full potential).

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

• 3 Core Needs Drive Motivation:

  1. Competence – Mastering challenges.

  2. Autonomy – Acting on free will.

  3. Relatedness – Feeling connected to others.

3. Hunger & Eating Motivation

Physiological Regulation of Hunger

• Set Point Theory: The body has a biologically determined weight range it tries to maintain.

• Hunger Signals:

  • Drop in blood glucose → Triggers hunger.

  • Liver releases glucose when blood sugar is low.

  • Leptin (fat hormone) suppresses appetite.

Brain Areas Controlling Hunger

• Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Stimulates eating.

• Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): Signals when to stop eating.

• Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN): Regulates neurotransmitters affecting hunger (e.g., Neuropeptide Y = appetite stimulant).

Psychological & Cultural Influences on Eating

• Positive reinforcement: Eating good food is pleasurable.

• Social & emotional eating: Eating for comfort.

• Cultural influences: Different societies have different food preferences.

• Objectification Theory: Society pressures women to be thin and men to be muscular.

4. Sexual Motivation

Why Do People Have Sex?

• Biological reasons (reproduction, hormones).

• Psychological reasons (pleasure, love, peer pressure).

Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson)

1. Excitement – Increased blood flow.

2. Plateau – Heart rate and tension increase.

3. Orgasm – Rhythmic contractions.

4. Resolution – Body returns to normal.

Hormones & Sexual Behavior

• Hypothalamus regulates hormones via the pituitary gland.

• Androgens (testosterone) → Influence sexual desire in both men & women.

• Estrogens (estradiol) → Regulate female reproductive cycles.

Sexual Orientation

• Exists on a spectrum from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual.

• Early Theories (disproven):

  • Overprotective mothers or absent fathers.

  • Childhood seduction by adults.

• Modern Research:

  • Twin studies suggest genetic influence.

  • Prenatal hormones may play a role.

5. Achievement Motivation

What is Achievement Motivation?

• Desire to accomplish difficult tasks and excel.

• Stable personality trait.

Two Key Motivations

1. Motive for Success – Driven by intrinsic motivation to master challenges.

2. Fear of Failure – Can lead to avoidance behavior and anxiety.

Different Goal Orientations

• Mastery Goals – Focus on learning and improvement.

• Performance-Approach Goals – Desire to be seen as competent.

• Performance-Avoidance Goals – Fear of being judged negatively (leads to procrastination).

Cultural Influences

• Individualistic cultures – Emphasize personal success.

• Collectivistic cultures – Emphasize family and social harmony.

6. Emotion

What are Emotions?

• Emotions = Patterns of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral responses to stimuli.

• Strong emotions occur when goals are achieved or threatened.

Theories of Emotion

1. James-Lange Theory – “We feel emotions because of physiological reactions.”

   • Example: "I'm afraid because my heart is racing."

2. Cannon-Bard Theory – "Emotion and bodily reaction occur simultaneously."

   • Example: "I see a bear → I feel afraid & my heart races at the same time."

3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory – Emotion = Arousal + Labeling the Situation.

   • Example: If your heart is racing, your interpretation (excitement vs. fear) determines the emotion.

4. Facial Feedback Hypothesis – Facial expressions can influence our emotions.

Emotion & the Brain

• Amygdala: Processes fear & threat-related emotions.

• Prefrontal Cortex: Regulates emotional responses.

• Left hemisphere: More active during positive emotions.

• Right hemisphere: More active during negative emotions.

Chapter 12

Key Theories & Concepts

1. Developmental Psychology Overview

• Study of biological, psychological, and behavioral changes across the lifespan.

• Nature vs. Nurture: The role of genetics and environment in shaping development.

• Critical Periods: Specific times where experiences must occur (e.g., language acquisition).

• Sensitive Periods: Optimal time frames for development, but not strictly necessary.

2. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

• Cross-Sectional Study: Compares different age groups at the same time.

• Longitudinal Study: Follows the same group over time.

• Sequential Study: Combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

3. Prenatal & Infant Development

Prenatal Development Stages:

1. Germinal (0-2 weeks): Zygote formation, attachment to uterine wall.

2. Embryonic (2-8 weeks): Placenta and umbilical cord development.

3. Fetal (9 weeks-birth): Rapid growth, viability around 28 weeks.

Teratogens & Environmental Effects

• Teratogens: Harmful agents causing fetal abnormalities (e.g., alcohol, drugs).

• Maternal Stress: Can lead to premature birth, attentional deficits.

Newborn Abilities

• Reflexes: Rooting, sucking, grasping.

• Sensory Perception: Poor vision at birth (20/800), better hearing.

• Habituation: Reduced response to repeated stimuli.

4. Cognitive Development (Piaget)

• Schemas: Mental structures organizing knowledge.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Modifying schemas based on new experiences.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years):

   • Object Permanence: Understanding objects exist even when unseen.

   • Experience world through senses and motor actions.

2. Preoperational (2-7 years):

   • Symbolic thinking (pretend play).

   • Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding other perspectives.

   • Conservation Tasks: Failure to understand quantity remains constant despite changes in shape.

3. Concrete Operational (7-12 years):

   • Logical thinking about tangible objects.

   • Reversible thinking (e.g., understanding a map route).

   • Success in conservation tasks.

4. Formal Operational (12+ years):

   • Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

   • Forming and testing hypotheses.

Critiques of Piaget:

• Underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.

• Development may be more continuous than stage-like.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Difference between what a child can do alone vs. with help.

• Scaffolding: Temporary support that helps children learn.

5. Social & Emotional Development

Attachment Theories

• Harlow’s Monkey Experiment: Demonstrated importance of contact comfort over nourishment.

• Bowlby’s Attachment Theory: Infants form emotional bonds for survival.

• Ainsworth’s Strange Situation:

  • Secure (67%): Distressed when mother leaves, comforted upon return.

  • Anxious-Resistant: Clingy, distressed when mother leaves, ambivalent upon return.

  • Anxious-Avoidant: Little distress when mother leaves, ignores her return.

Adult Attachment & Relationships

• Feeney & Noller: Securely attached individuals have healthier relationships.

• Butzer & Campbell: Higher anxiety/avoidance = lower relationship satisfaction.

6. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

• Lifespan approach focusing on resolving social and identity crises.

7. Adult Development & Aging

Levinson’s Adult Development

• Life structure = stable periods punctuated by crises.

• Midlife Crisis?

  • Levinson: Common at 45.

  • Costa & McCrae: No strong evidence; crisis can happen at any age.

Aging & Cognitive Changes

• Fluid Intelligence (problem-solving) declines early adulthood.

• Crystallized Intelligence (knowledge, experience) peaks in middle age, declines later.

• Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Dying:

  1. Denial

  2. Anger

  3. Bargaining

  4. Depression

  5. Acceptance

Reverse Aging?

• Hayashi (2015): Cellular respiration might be restored using mitochondrial manipulation.

• Glycine: Potential supplement for reversing aging effects.

8. Summary & Key Takeaways

• Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Piaget emphasized stages, Vygotsky emphasized social interaction.

• Attachment affects later relationships: Secure attachment leads to healthier emotional bonds.

• Personality stabilizes in adulthood: Midlife crisis is not universal.

• Cognitive abilities decline with age, but wisdom can increase.