AP Gov Review

Unit 1

Foundations of American Democracy 

Declaration of Independence (3 ideals of democracy): 

1. Natural rights (unable rights): Fundamental rights of all human beings, not received from the government.  Rights that we enjoy simply from being human. Life, liberty, and included happiness (From Thomas, Jefferson adapted from John Locke)

2. Social Contract: The purpose of the government is to protect people's natural rights. “To secure these rights governments are instituted among men”

3.  Popular Sovereignty: People are the source of governmental power and authority. “Deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed”

• People have the right to abolish a government that protects their rights.

 Limited Government: The federal government only has the powers granted to it by the Constitution. 

• Representative Democracy: People vote on representatives who then make the law for them. 

• The U.S. has a representative democracy.

1.  Participatory Democracy: Emphasizes broad participation and an active role for individual citizens in politics in society. (people getting involved and taking action) 

   1. Ex: Attending meetings and protests.

2. Pluralist democracy: Group-based activism to impact political decision making. 

• Political parties and interest groups

3. Elite Democracy: a small number of people, usually those who are wealthy or well-educated, influence political decision-making. (Voting on Representatives instead of voting for the policy )

The Proper balance between governmental power and individual rights:

Federalist No. 10 (James Madison):

• The biggest Threat to the nation is factions.

• Majority fractions would trample the rest of the minorities because nothing is stopping the bigger groups from doing what they want. 

• Anti-Democracy 

• A large Republic is the best way to control the negative effects of factions

• Madison argues that a strong central government can help preserve order and prevent the tyranny of the majority. 

•  pluralist democracy

Brutus No. 10:

• Anti-Federalist 

• Wanted people to have as much power as possible and be decentralized 

• Against Excessive Federal power and preferred state and local policy-making 

• Participatory democracy 

• “The ability to lay and collect taxes is the most important of any power that can be granted”

Articles of Confederation: First attempt to set up the national government 

• Congress could: Declare War, make treaties, borrow money, coin money 

• Congress couldn't: Tax, regulate interstate commerce, 

Shades Rebellion: The weak response shifted public opinion to a decision for a stronger central government and a new constitution.

The Great Compromise: Created a bicameral legislature 

• Congress has two houses, divided equally: the House of Representatives and the Senate. 

Electoral College: Selects the president and each day selects the members of The Electoral College 

3/5 compromise: slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for congressional representation purposes 

• Just like the Southern States being over-represented it in the House and the Presidency over the first 70 years of the nation's history 

Virginia Plan:  a proposed at the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The plan called for the creation of a supreme national government with three branches

Importation of: Slave trade couldn't be banned for 20 years. The only way to support Southern support in the Constitution 

Amendment process: 2/3 of the house proposed amendment 3/4 of the States ratified 

Federalist: Supported the new constitution and favored a strong central government 

Anti-Federalists: opposed the Constitution and advocated for states' rights and they demanded the inclusion of a Bill of Rights.

• Those are very concerned about how much power the federal government would have. 

Separation of powers: Each branch is assigned specific Powers so each branch has limited power. 

• Legislative branch: Makes laws 

• Executive branch: Enforces laws 

• Judicial branch: interprets laws

Federalist No 51: Separation of power and checks and balances.

• That way one branch of government does not have too much power.

•  Each branch has some influence over the others

• In an impeachment hearing, Congress puts a check on the president, the vice president, high-level officers of the executive branch, or judges.

Federalism: division of powers between national state and local governments  (Article 5 of the Constitution)

•   Dynamic federalism: the relationship between federal states has changed over time.

• The national government has increased while state power has decreased.

Delegated powers: These are given to the national government by the Constitution.

• Power to: coining money, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce 

 Reserved powers: Powers reserved to the states 

• 10th Amendment: all powers not delegated to the federal government or denied to the states are reserved to the states or the people

• Powers: general police power, Education Health, Welfare, and Licensing 

Congruent powers: Held by both the federal government and state government

• both raise taxes and borrow money. 

•  For citizens, this creates an interesting situation where there are multiple levels of government over us. Depending on the particular issue, we might have to listen to the national government other times the states.

Dual federalism / layered federalism: States and federal Supreme in their sphere of power own overlap.

During the Progressive Era and culminating with the New Deal during FDR's presidency we saw a shift into 

Cooperative or Marvel cake federalism: Federal and States share responsibilities and administration of policies. 

Fiscal federalism:  deals with the division of governmental functions and financial relations among levels of government.

There are four different ways money has gone from the national government to the state government. 

1. Categorical grants: these provide money to states for a specific purpose. 

   1. the states get the money but Congress tells the state specifically how to spend that money and the conditions of aid/ incentives. 

2. Block grants: Federal money to the state for use within a broad area more freedom to States. (More discretion but not total freedom)

3. Federal revenue: sharing money to the states with little or no stranger attached (end in 1986) 

4. Mandates: rules that states must follow whether the federal government provides money or not. 

   1. Grants have increased National Power by allowing Congress to influence state policies 

Supremacy clause: federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions, when they come into conflict. 

 Necessary and proper clause: expands Federal power Congress can make laws necessary and proper for executing their enumerated powers. 

• Article 1 Section 8 of The Constitution: “To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution”

• Enumerated power: directly written in the Constitution (aka expressed or explicit)

• Implied powers: Congress has powers not directly written based on necessary and proper clauses.

McCulloch V Maryland (1819): Congress could create a National Bank( necessary and proper clause even though the Constitution doesn't say they can)

• States cannot tax the national government (supremacy clause) because the National government is superior. 

Commerce Clause: Congress can regulate interstate commerce, expanding congressional power 

• Only Congress can regulate anything affecting interstate commerce 

Us V Lopez ( 1995): struck down the Federal Gun-free school zone Act (Commerce Clause and 10th Amendment)

• For the first time in 60 years, the court struck down a federal law establishing that there is a limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause and they reaffirmed the 10th Amendment does reserve some powers to the states. 

Extradition: transferring from one state to another to stand trial.

Unit 2

Interaction Among Branches of Government 

Article 1, section 8- powers of congress 

House of Representatives: Represents the people based on population 

• 435 members

• Present districts (population)

•  Serve 2-year terms 

Senate: Represents the state 

• 100 members

•  Represent States ( 2 per state)

•  Serve 6-year terms

Enumerated powers

• Federal budget ( power of the purse)

•  Taxation

•  coin, borrow money

•  Declaring war ( maintaining Armed Forces) 

Implied powers: Allows Congress to make legislation on economic, environmental, and social issues.

• Based on the necessary and proper clause, Congress can make legislation to carry out its enumerated powers.

Party leadership 

• The speaker of the house is the most powerful person in the house and is always from the majority party 

• The leader of the Senate is known as the Senate Majority Leader 

• President of the Senate: The vice president casts votes in case of a tie (only power)

Standing committees: both the House and Senate make use 

• Permanent 

• Bill sent here

•  edit/revise/markup bills

•  oversight on implementation Legislation that's already been passed

The committee chair is always from the majority party 

Conference committees: A joint committee that makes a compromised version of the bill between the House and Senate versions

• Include both members of the House and Senate 

• Passed by both houses  and then sent to the president

House of Representatives:

• More formal/ rules-based

•  Germaneness requirement: all speeches on the floor must be on topic with the bill at hand 

• The time limit for debate 

• House rules committee: makes rules for floor debate:  open/close rule, time limit for debate, whether or not amendments can be added to a bill or not.

• Discharge petition: a majority vote of the Full House to force a bill out of committee 

• Committee of the whole: used to expedite the passage of leadership, members may debate and propose amendments. 

  • (Can be used to facilitate the passage of legislation quickly)

Senate: (less formal)

• Filibuster: a long speech intended to delay action and prevent a bill from being voted on.

  • Usually the tactic of the minority party can prevent legislation that has majority support from passing.

  • It only requires a simple majority to pass legislation in both the House and the Senate 

• cloture: voter cut-off debate on a bill requires a 3/5 majority vote. (especially filibuster) 

• Silent Filibuster:  the consented bill is put aside so the Senate can work on other business.

  •  hold: a senator can prevent  a bill from being discussed or voted on 

  • Slow down the process of

• Unanimous consent: agreements that can expedite and speed up the process of routine legislation 

 Power of the purse: Congress creates a budget the president signs it into law

• Create an annual budget with two types of spending. 

• Discretionary spending: Any refers to spending that is authorized annually by Congress

  •  for things like defense and education spending which can be set as high or as low as they want to do each year.

• Mandatory spending: required by law can only be changed by new legislation including entitlements and interest on the debt. 

  •  Entitlement programs: provide benefits to people who are entitled who are entitled to them by law. 

    •  Social Security and Medicare.

  • 70% of  federal spending is considered mandatory and this number continues to grow as Boomers get older and retire 

  • Interest on debt payments leads to decreased discretionary spending opportunities unless tax revenue increases or budget deficits increase. 

 Pork Barrel legislation: provides tangible benefits like jobs or money for a representative district and then helps that representative get reelected.

Log rolling:  Vote trading. “ I vote for yours, you vote for mine”

Delegates models: A Representative should follow the public opinion of his constituents even if he or she personally disagrees.

Trustee role: suggests that the member is free to vote how she thinks is best even if her constituents disagree 

• Politico: is a blend of both we're a representative who can usually feel free to use her judgment but at certain times is compelled to follow the public opinion of her constituents.

 How does a Congressman get into office? Elected by people in their state or districts 

• Reapportionment:  Changers the number of seats each state has in the house, every 10 years after the census  

  • with some states gaining and other states losing seats 

• Redistricting: Redrawing congressional districts done by state legislatures.

  • Baker V. Carr (1962): Redistricting issues are reviewable led to the  " one person, one vote” principle

  • 14th Amendment equal protection clause

  • Districts be roughly the same size 

• Gerrymandering: dividing or arranging a territorial unit into election districts in a way that gives one political party an unfair advantage. 

  • Shaw V. Reno (1993): Congregational districts cannot be drawn based only on race.

• Divided government: Different parties controlled the white house, senate, and/or House of Representatives 

•  policy gridlock: slow/difficult to pass legislation, confirm nominations

  • Partisan votes against presidential initiatives or refusal by the Senate to confirm appointments by presidents from the opposite party. 

• Party polarization: Increasing ideological division between Democratic and Republicans. 

  • Contributes to the problem of gridlock.

Presidency

• The president is the head of the executive- Article 2 of the Constitution  

• The job is to enforce laws made by congress 

•  Formal powers of the president: Legislation is that they can sign the bill into law or they can veto.

  • Veto: A message to contrast rejecting a law.

  • Congress can override with a 2/3 vote in both houses 

  •  Pocket veto: the president takes no action if the session of Congress ends within 10 days of sending the bill to the president.

  •  it does not become a law Otherwise if Congress isn't in session it becomes a law without the present signature 

  • Commander in Chief:  in charge of overseeing the branches of the military and directing troop movements 

    • Only Congress can declare war 

  • Treaties: president makes treaties with foreign Nations subject to Senate  ratification

• Informal powers of the president: 

  • Executive agreements:  agreements with foreign heads of state like a treaty but do not require a senate ratification.

    • They're more convenient for presidents to get into but they're also really easy for the next president to exit from.

• Bargaining: likely need to bargain with Congress on appointments, budgets and legislative properties.

  •  convincing and persuading the public who could then put pressure on their members of Congress to cooperate with the president.

• Signing statement: a written statement issued by the president when signing a bill that  provides their interpretation of the bill

• Provide instructions to the executive agencies that are in charge of implementing that law. 

• Executive Order: Allow them to make policy that has the force of Law and doesn't require Congressional approval

  •  generally used to direct the bureaucracy and foreign policy

• The president is heavily reliant on Congress and therefore there are many opportunities for tension and confrontation especially with the Senate.

  • nomination with Senate confirmation: Federal judges cabinet secretaries ambassadors heads of executive agencies 

  • No confirmation required:  White House office/staff: chief of staff, press secretary, advisors 

• Judicial appointments: a president's longest-lasting influence 

• Presidential Power has clearly expanded since the passage of the Constitution 

• Federalist No. 70: Alexander Hamilton made a case for a single unitary executive arguing that it was necessary for the executive to be able to quickly respond to moments of disaster.

  • Public  opinion was actually a stronger check on a single executive fan on a plural or group executive cuz at least we all know who to blame or who to credit for a situation 

• Expansive Vs limited Interpretation of Presidential Power

• After FDR won the presidency for approximately the 19th

• 22nd amendment: limiting presidents that serve only two terms 

 Social media and Technology make it easy for the president to communicate quickly and directly with the public

• The bully pulpit:  A position of authority that lets the president to speak out on any issue 

  • Whatever they say is already newsworthy and it can be used to push their policy agenda 

•   State of the Union Address: Nationally televised speech delivered to Congress attempts to gain support for their agenda and pressure Congress into supporting those priorities. 

Executive branch 

• Bureaucracy/ civil service:  implements Federal policies 

  • Bureaucrats / civil servants 

• Merit system:  bureaucrats earn jobs based on Merit and or civil service exam

• Bureaucrats are non-political; many of the heads of agencies are politically appointed by the president

Bureaucrat agencies.

1. Cabinet departments are the big guys there's only 17 of them and they have authority over a broad area of policy 

   1. things like justice, defense treasury again big picture power 

2. Independent Regulatory Commission/agencies:  make rules regulating specific Industries more narrow area of responsibility 

3. Independent executive agencies: Perform Public Services reports directly to the president 

   1. Trying to achieve a policy goal 

   2. They have some independence from the president and from Cabinet departments.

   3.  The president may not be able to fire or remove the top-level administrators the idea here is that this frees up decision-makers at these agencies to do what they believe is best not what is politically expedient 

4. Government corporations: provide services that could be provided by private companies, but aren’t profitable.

Administrative discretion: Congress allows agencies to choose how to implement and enforce legislation.

Administrative law: Agencies are given rule-making authority to make regulations that have the power of law 

• Criticism: unelected bureaucrats make regulations in our accountable to the people

The president can issue executive orders in a point and remove some agency and cabinet heads 

Congressional oversight:  Congress can check on committee hearings and legislators into an agency's activities. 

• Make sure their action please Members of Congress including investigations requiring the heads of these agencies and testify at hearings if Congress doesn't like what they hear they can use their 

•   Power of the purse: to reduce the agency's budget or even abolish the agency altogether 

Article 3 of The Constitution's judicial branch

• Federalist No. 78: Hamilton argue that the Constitution established an independent Judiciary with judges serving life terms that would be free to strike down laws that were contrary to the Constitution: Judicial review 

• Marbury V. Madison (1803):  Establish judicial review

• Judicial review: Had the power to strike down laws and executive actions that were unconstitutional 

  • The Constitution doesn't explicitly mention judicial review and the fact that the court gave themselves this power and that they aren't elected can lead to some people questioning the legitimacy of the Court's power 

  •  the Supreme Court lacks the ability to enforce its ruling 

Federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, are nominated by presidents and are subjects in the confirmation process. Presidents attempt to nominate justices who are ideologically similar to themselves

Precedent: A past decision that influences future decisions.

•  telling other federal judges how to rule on similar issues

 Stare decisis: “Let the decision stand”  means to follow the Precedent 

• But the Supreme Court is free to ignore that and establish new  precedents 

Presidential checks on the Judiciary 

• If a ruling is controversial or unpopular the president May ignore/refuse to implement

• Lemonade justices to overturn 

Congress checks on the Judiciary 

• Change the court  jurisdiction (In hopes of changing the ideology of the Court's majority)

•  change the number of justices

•  propose a constitutional amendment: strongest check 

•  pass a modified version of the law 

Judicial restraint: The court should defer the democratically elected branches whenever possible and only Strike down legislation that are clearly unconstitutional 

Judicial activism:  the court can and should be free to overrule other branches 

Unit 3

 civil liberties and civil rights 

Civil liberties: individual personal freedoms (gov cant take away)

Bill of Rights: protects individual personal Liberty by limiting the federal government 

• 1st Amendment: Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly

• 2nd Amendment: right to bear arms

•  3rd Amendment:  Right to refuse quarters to soldiers

• 4th Amendment: protects people from unreasonable search and seizure

• 5th Amendment: text people from being held for a crime unless accused Double Jeopardy and self-incrimination

•  6th Amendment: the right to a fair and speedy trial

•  7th Amendment; right to a trial by jury

•  8th Amendment: protects from cruel and unusual  punishment

• 9th Amendment: not all rights are listed in the Constitution

• 10th Amendment: power not granted to the federal government belongs to the states and the people 

• 11th Amendment: a citizen of one state can't sue the government of another state unless it is done in the state being sued

• 12th Amendment:  the electoral college has separate balance for President and Vice President

• 13th Amendment:  abolished slavery 

• 14th Amendment: anyone born in the US is a citizen, all citizens are equally protected by the law

• 15th Amendment: voting rights can not be denied because of race or color

• 16th Amendment: The Federal Government Can tax our income

• 17th Amendment: the people directly elect their senators 

• 18th Amendment: prohibited the sale of alcohol

• 19th Amendment: Gives women the right to vote

• 20th Amendment: move the presidential inauguration date from the month of March to January 20th. this amendment is also known as the “lame duck" Amendment

• 21st Amendment: probation and, the 18th Amendment is repealed alcohol is legal again 

• 22nd Amendment: Franklin Roosevelt was elected four times all presidents are now limited to two terms 

• 23rd Amendment: citizens of Washington DC ( our U.S capital)  received the right to vote in presidential elections. Washington DC is given three electoral votes 

• 24th Amendment: Outlaws poll taxes

• 25th amendment: outlines procedures for the succession to the presidency. the VP takes over as president if the president is unable to fulfill his/her job 

• 26th Amendment: 18-year-olds have suffrage rights, can participate in voting  

• 27th Amendment: amendment: Congress can give themselves a pay raise comment, but they have to wait until after the next election before they get it 

Due process clause: States can’t take away a person's life liberty or property without due press of the law. ( 14th amendment)

Selective incorporation: The Bill of Rights has been applied to States on a Case by case basis 

•  Today Nearly the entire Bill of Rights has been Incorporated so it now restricts state governments just like the federal government from violating those fundamental rights 

Establishment clause: no official religion or preferential treatment for a religion (1st Amendment)

• Engel V. Vitale (1962):  Banned state-sponsored prayer at Public School even if participation is voluntary.

• Free exercise clause:  the right to participate in the religion of your choice

• Wisconsin V. Yoder (1962): Compelling Amish students to attend public school Beyond 8th-grade violence the free exercise clause

Schenck V U.S (1919): There can be time, place, and manner restrictions on Free Speech (1st Amendment)

Tinker V. Des Moines (1969): Students have free speech symbolic speech (black armed band) is pure speech and constitutionally protected. (1st Amendment)

Unprotected speech: liberal, slander, obscenity, speech intended to unlikely incite imminent illegal action 

The court usually rules in favor of free speech and the same is true of freedom of the press. 

New York Times V. U. S (1971): Because of the First Amendment freedom of the press there's a heavy presumption against Prior restraint. ( prevents thoughts and ideas from ever entering public conversation.)

McDonald V. Chicago (1971): Incorporated an individual right to bear arms (2nd Amendment)

   An officer can search: Fourth Amendment: 

• Search warrant

•  probable cause

•  consent 

Exclusionary rule:  illegally obtained evidence can not be used in a trial. 

Miranda rule: suspects in custody must be informed of the 5th and 6th Amendment right ( 2nd Amendment)

• Public Safety exception: if a question is asked to neutralize a dangerous situation, a statement made by the suspect can be used as evidence 

Gideon V. Wainwright (1963): Incorporated the right to an attorney, forcing states to provide suspects with a lawyer. (6th Amendment) 

No death penalty for my minors, intellectually disabled people, or non-capital cases (8th Amendment) 

Rights of privacy isn't enumerated in the Bill of Rights discovered in Griswold V. Connecticut  (1965):

Roe V. Wade (1973): Established and Incorporated a right to an abortion based on the right of privacy 

 Civil rights: Protects groups of people from discrimination 

• Equal protection clause: “nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the  laws” (14th amendment)

• Letter from Birmingham:  Jail demands fulfillment of Declaration and Constitution for African Americans (MLK)

•  Social Movements: civil rights, women's rights, LGBTQ rights, pro-life are supported and motivated by the equal protection cost 

• Brown V. Board of Education (1954): Racially segregated Public Schools violate the 14th Amendment 

• Circle right Act of 1964: Banned discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, or national origin and public accommodations or employment

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: banned literacy tests and other obstacles to vote 

  • This led to a dramatic increase in minority voter turnout with the 24th Amendment

•  Equal Pay Act of 1963:  it requires equal pay for equal work; and bans wage discrimination based on sex, race, national origin, or religion

• Title Nine (IX) of the Educational Amendments of 1972:  prohibits discrimination based on sex in any federally funded education program 

• Jim Call laws: state laws that legalize racial discrimination and segregation in the south

• Shaw V. Reno (1993): The court prohibited racial gerrymandering even if it is done with the specific purpose of increasing minority representation.

• Affirmative action: first policies that require businesses and colleges to take active steps to increase the hiring and admission of racial minorities most commonly Black and Hispanic Americans 

  • Affirmative action is still constitutional but it's limited and the debate still rages on.

• Colorblind Constitution: The Equal Protection Clause bands any policy that makes racial distinctions, even if they're intended to help minorities 

  • Any distinction based on race is automatically unconstitutional 

•  Race conscious: The equal protection Clause only bands policies designed to harm, not help minorities 

Unit 4

American political ideologies and beliefs 

Core value shared by Americans

• Individualism

•  equality of opportunity

•  free enterprise (individual people and businesses to make money with minimal interference by the government.)

•  rule of law

•  limited government 

Political ideology: A consistent of ideas and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government

• Conservatives: like economic freedom, low tax, less regulation, and less government effort promoting social and economic equality.

  •  favor a stronger government comes to defense police and law enforcement and often favor restrictions on things like abortion same-sex rights and marijuana 

• Liberals or  progressives: are the opposite prefer more economic regulation, higher taxes and more services to be provided by governments, especially 

  • in areas like healthcare and education, 

  • prefer a smaller role for government in defense and policing and prefer to protect the rights of the accused in favor of personal privacy like Reproductive Rights and sexuality. 

• Libertarian: Freedom is good government usually they favor maximum Social and economic freedom and argue for a very limited role for government. 

  • picking up things like protecting private property and individual rights to the government is a necessary equal but should be kept as small as possible.

• The Republican platform is more conservative Democratic platform is more liberal 

  • Don't mix up party and Ideologies 

Economic Ideologies 

•  Keynesian economics: The government should stimulate the economy during recessions by increasing government spending 

• Supply-side economics: The government should stimulate the economy during recessions by cutting taxes to encourage businesses to grow. 

• Fiscal policy: Government taxes and spending policies conducted by Congress and the president 

• Monetary policy: controlling the money supply and adjustments interest rates to stabilize the economy

  • The lower the unemployment the Federal government should increase the money supply and decrease interest rates 

  • To lower inflation the federal government should decrease the money supply and increase the interest rate

Political socialization: the process of a person obtaining her political ideology 

• Family, schools, friends, media, and religious organizations are all for the process

  •  But family is the most significant source of political socialization 

Generation effects: Different voting patterns and political beliefs for people in different Generations. 

 Lifecycle effects: people focus on different issues at different points in life, Ideologies evolve throughout their own lifetime 

• Impressionable age hypothesis: Major political events that occurred early in life have a lasting impact on a person's political attitudes and beliefs 

 Public opinion

• Opinion poll: Poll to measure public opinion on a particular issue 

• Benchmark pole: used to find out where a candidate stands before any campaigning, strengths, weaknesses, and what issues to focus on.

• Tracking Poll: a continuous poll on the same group of  people to charge changes in opinion over time

•  Entrance/exit poll: Taking on Election Day used to predict election outcomes to get insight and voting behavior.

Polls must have: 

• Random sample: all people in the population have an equal chance of being selected. 

•  Stratified sample: The population is divided into subgroups and based on population demographics. 

• Sampling error: a polling error arising from using only a sample of a population  +/-3% margin of error is acceptable.

•  Focus Group: a small group of Voters chosen to participate in an in-depth discussion about a candidate.

Unit 5

Political participation

Expansion of voting rights:

• 15th Amendment race can't be a barrier 

•  19th Amendment sex can't be a barrier

•  26th Amendment voting age 18

•  24th Amendment band poll taxes 

Voting behavior: 

• Party Line voting: Supporting a party by voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices 

• Retrospective voting: Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past

• Prospective voting: voting based on predictions of how power or candidate will perform in the future 

• Rational Choice: voting based on your interest

• Political efficacy:  a person's belief that  they can affect political outcomes

• States and elections policy 

  • registration required

  •  early voting

  •  mail in voting 

• Midterm elections have lower voter turnout and more partisan/ideological voters

• Most likely to vote: 

  • More educated

  •  higher income

  •  middle-aged/older 

  • Religious

• Voting decisions are influenced by:

  •  Party identification

  •  political  ideology

  •  Race, gender, religion

  •  candidate characteristics 

  • Contemporary political issues 

Linkage institutions: channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers 

•  Political parties: The primary goal is to gain power and win elections

  • Party functions:

    • Mobilize, and educate voters: Convincing people to vote for their Party candidate and go to the polls to vote 

    • Establish a platform

    • Recruiting nominees in candidates to run for office

    • Raise money 

    • Media strategy

    •  

• Candidate-centered politics: some voters focus more on the candidate than his or her party. 

• Campaign Finance law: candidates are now less reliant on their party for fundraising 

•  Regional realignment: long-lasting original shift of Party Loyalty (South  was Democratic and is now strongly Republican)

•  Party dealignment:  a decrease in party identification and arrives in no party affiliation.

• Winner-take-all voting district: people vote for one person to represent their District winner goes to the house loser gets nothing 

• Informal barriers third parties face:

  • Lack of funding

  •  lack of media attention

  •   people believe it's a wasted vote.

• Incorporation of third-party agendas into platforms of major political parties serves as a barrier to third-party and independent candidate success 

• Interest group: to influence public policy for a specific purpose

  • Interest group functions:

    • Educating voters and officeholders 

    •  lobbying 

    • Drafting legislation

    •  mobilizing membership

• Lobbying: interest groups hire someone to directly pressure a member of Congress often providing her with information to convince them, to vote a certain way and may even be 

• Draft legislation: Suggest and support legislation meet with committees forming legislation, and propose change. and wording of bills 

• Triangle/issue networks influence how policies are made and implemented parentheses (Congressional committees, interest groups, bureaucratic agencies)

• Inequality of political and economic resource system groups have larger memberships or a very well-funded 

• Social movements May lack leadership, resources, infrastructure and clear policy objectives

Presidential elections 

• Primary elections: people vote for their preferred candidate from a political party.

• Party conventions: officially nominated the party as a presidential candidate, formally adopt a party platform 

•  Open Primary: Any registered voter can participate in either party's primary 

• Closed primary: only registered party members may participate 

• Caucus: a meeting of party members to choose a Party candidate for the general election 

• General election: Winner gets to become president 

  • And they becomes president by winning a majority (270) of electoral votes 

  • Winner take all: all 48 states Awarded all of their electoral votes to the candidate who received the most votes in their state 

  • Swing / Battleground State: Canadates to focus on competitive states with more electoral votes.

•   Modern campaigns set up

  •  professional Consultants

  •  raising campaign cost

  •  intensive fundraising efforts

  •  long election Cycles

  •  social media

•  bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002: band soft money, “ stand by your ad”  provision,  and limits on the timing of independent political ads 

• Soft money: Money contributed to political parties for “party-building” purposes unlimited and unregulated 

• Citizen United V. F.E.C (2010): Political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions in the form of protected speech under the First Amendment 

• Political Action Committee PACS: Raise Money to support a candidate or a Cause 

• Super Pacs:  independent expenditure-only committees can raise and spend unlimited amounts independent of the candidate 

Media 

• changes in news media from traditional print to cable Tv to social media 

• Gatekeeper: choosing what to report on and how long

• Watchdog: investigated journalism keeping public figures accountable 

•  Horacerace journalism: report on polling in popularity rather than more substantive reporting accountable  

• Increased media choices and more news sources than ever but we're not necessarily better informed 

• Ideologically oriented programming news targeted  two specific groups of people, also often reinforces existing beliefs 

• Consumer-driven media Outlets often reinforce existing beliefs

• Uncertain about the credibility of these sources and information