Day 2: The Growth of Cities: Urbanization & American Culture
Historical Context of Immigration and Ethnicity in the United States
Immigration Status and Racial Identity
Italians were not classified as white until the late 1940s or early 1950s.
Historical documents, such as newspaper articles, reveal how Italian immigrants faced racial discrimination, described with derogatory terms.
Personal anecdote: Great-grandparents' immigration papers listed a dark skin description for the Southern Italian great-grandfather, highlighting the perceptions of ethnicity and race at that time.
Over the 20th century, as certain ethnic groups, particularly Southern and Eastern Europeans, were deemed white, this status opened social doors for previously marginalized groups, leading to the concept of the melting pot in the U.S.
Living Conditions of Immigrants
Tenement Housing
Famous photographs by Jacob Riis capture the living conditions of immigrants in New York City.
Riis's work, How the Other Half Lives, depicts the stark reality of immigrant families, including an Italian family with five children living in a cramped apartment.
Immigrants typically shared basic amenities such as water closets and bathrooms across entire floors, with the absence of indoor plumbing in earlier years.
Health and safety concerns: Families often had to go outside for basic sanitation needs, indicative of the squalid living conditions.
The term "5¢ lodging" refers to extremely basic accommodations available to immigrant workers, with overcrowded sleeping arrangements, poor ventilation, and unsafe conditions.
The depiction of slum neighborhoods shows the transition from wooden slums to brick tenements, improving conditions slightly over time.
Immigration Perception and Response
America's Ambivalence Toward Immigrants
The phrase "America beckons, but Americans repel" summarizes the ongoing dichotomy in U.S. immigration history, where periods of high immigration often coincide with strong pushback against those immigrants.
There exists a historical irony wherein U.S. economic development—industrial capitalism and infrastructure—relied on immigrant labor while simultaneously fostering nativism and racism.
Legislation and Restrictions
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant piece of legislation aimed specifically at restricting immigration from a particular nationality, marking a significant historical event in U.S. immigration policy.
Ellis Island opened in 1892, serving as a major processing center for European immigrants, with stringent medical exams, including invasive procedures, financial requirements, and possible quarantines for health concerns.
Social Implications of Immigration
Labor Unions and Nativism
Labor unions emerged partly in response to inexpensive immigrant labor, as unions sought to organize workers for better wages and conditions, often coming into conflict with immigrant labor.
Nativist groups emerged, advocating for the interests of native-born Americans and opposing immigrants, initiated political movements that reflected the growing racial tensions.
Social Darwinism influenced public perceptions, creating hierarchies among different ethnic groups, often discriminating against Italians, Jews, and others.
Demographic Changes and Cultural Spaces
Ethnic Enclaves
Immigrants tended to settle in clustered communities (e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown), fostering cultural familiarity and support networks within their communities.
As time progressed and assimilation occurred, such neighborhoods changed, often with gentrification influencing their dynamics—Little Italy diminished while other communities diversified.
Cultural Symbols and Identity
Various ethnic groups retained traditions and built cultural symbols that illustrated their journey and presence in America.
Notable example: The Rosh Hashanah greeting card from 1900 reflects the pride and cultural retention of Jewish immigrants in their new homeland.
Conditions Leading to Reforms
Progressive Response to Urban Challenges
Overcrowding and poor living conditions led to calls for reform, culminating in the Progressive Era where improvements in urban policies, labor laws, and living conditions were advocated.
Henry George’s work, Progress and Poverty, highlighted the growing inequality precipitated by rapid industrialization.
The role of Protestant Christians in the social gospel movement emphasized the moral duty to address social problems exacerbated by urbanization and industrial capitalism.
Education and Literacy Growth
Compulsory education laws led to a significant increase in literacy rates, reaching 90% by 1900, reflecting educational reforms that arose from urban challenges.
Rise of social sciences and social work as a profession identified causes of urban issues and proposed viable solutions, emphasizing education's vital role in societal improvement.
Key Contributions to Urban Development
Architectural Innovations
Central Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1858, represents a significant architectural accomplishment amidst growing urbanization—serving as an essential public space.
The Statue of Liberty, gifted by France in 1876, symbolizes Freedom and opportunity, becoming a landmark for immigrants arriving in New York, embodying the American ethos of welcoming those in need.
Noteworthy fact: Funding for the statue's pedestal resulted from widespread community efforts, illustrating collective support for immigrant representation in America.
These notes provide a comprehensive foundation for understanding key themes and periods in AP US History, particularly concerning immigration, urbanization, industrialization, and reform movements. They directly address topics such as:
Immigration and Ethnicity: The notes detail the evolving racial classifications (e.g., Italians not being classified as white initially) and the discrimination faced by various immigrant groups. This is crucial for understanding social hierarchies, nativism, and the concept of the "melting pot" across different historical periods, particularly from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries.
Urbanization and Living Conditions: Jacob Riis's work and descriptions of tenement housing directly relate to the challenges of rapid urbanization during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. AP US History often examines the social problems created by industrial growth and the subsequent efforts to address them.
Government Policy and Nativism: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the establishment of Ellis Island in 1892 are significant historical landmarks in U.S. immigration policy. These examples illustrate the federal government's role in regulating immigration and the prevalent nativist sentiments, which are central to understanding political and social tensions in various eras.
Social and Economic Impacts: Discussions of labor unions, inexpensive immigrant labor, and Social Darwinism connect to the economic transformations of industrial capitalism and the conflicts between capital and labor. These are core components of studying the Gilded Age and Populist movements.
Cultural Adaptation and Enclaves: The formation of ethnic enclaves and the retention of cultural traditions highlight the processes of assimilation and cultural pluralism, which are ongoing themes in American history.
Progressive Era Reforms: The notes touch upon the conditions leading to reforms, the social gospel movement, compulsory education, and the rise of social sciences. These directly inform the study of the Progressive Era, its motivations, and its impact on American society and government.
Urban Development and National Symbols: References to Central Park and the Statue of Liberty provide examples of urban planning and national symbols related to immigration and American ideals, enriching the understanding of urban landscapes and national identity.