Lecture Review on Philosophical Theories of Justice and Ethics

RAWLS'S VEIL OF IGNORANCE

  • Role in Rawls's Theory

    • The veil of ignorance is a hypothetical scenario where individuals are to select principles of justice without knowing their social status, talents, or personal biases.

    • It ensures fairness since decisions are made without advantage or disadvantage based on arbitrary factors.

    • The intention is to simulate an initial position of equality among all persons, making the principles agreed upon just and impartial.

UTILITARIANISM AND THE ORIGINAL POSITION

  • Consequentialism vs. Rawls's Principles

    • Rawls argues that occupants of the original position do not choose utilitarian principles because:

    • Utilitarianism may require sacrificing the well-being of some for the greater good, contradicting the equality of individuals.

    • Individuals would not accept positions that could lead to significant disadvantages for themselves.

    • The risk of being in a less favorable position leads to the choice of principles ensuring the protection of basic rights and interests.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CONTRACTUAL CHARACTERIZATION

  • Use of the Term “Contract”

    • Rawls identifies several advantages of characterizing his theory in terms of a social contract:

    • It conveys the idea of collective agreement among rational persons regarding justice principles.

    • This framing illustrates the necessity of mutual recognition of rights and responsibilities.

    • The contract metaphor allows for a more engaging dialogue about justice as a shared endeavor rather than a fixed set of norms.

EGALITARIAN CONCEPTION OF JUSTICE

  • Reasons for the Claim of Egalitarianism

    • Rawls asserts that his theory represents an egalitarian conception because:

    • It emphasizes the fair distribution of basic liberties and the need to redress natural and social inequalities.

    • The difference principle allows inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged, thus prioritizing the welfare of the worst-off.

    • The focus on fairness in agreement aligns with the idea that all individuals have equal moral worth.

ARISTOTLE: VIRTUE AND CHARACTER

Introduction to Aristotle's Ethics

  • Virtue involves activity in accordance with reason and defines a good, fulfilling life.

  • Aristotle posits that living well aligns with our virtues, avoiding extremes in behavior.

Definition of Goodness

  • Good as an End of Action

    • The good is that which is pursued for itself rather than as a means to another end.

    • The fulfillment of the good is linked to the ultimate aim of every action undertaken.

Criteria for Completeness of Goods

  • Complete and Self-Sufficient Good

    • Happiness is the highest good, being complete and self-sufficient; it can be pursued for itself and contains no excess or deficiency.

  • Whatever contributes to the achievement of happiness is seen as an end, but happiness itself requires no further justification.

HAVING A FUNCTION

Function and the Human Good

  • Human Function

    • The human function involves rational activity, specifically reasoning and virtuous actions.

    • Virtue manifests through fulfilling one's role effectively, aligning actions with rational principles.

  • Human Good

    • Human good arises from the soul’s activity that expresses reason and virtue, suggesting that true happiness is found in living virtuously.

Importance of Virtue

  • Virtue of Character

    • Distinguished from talent or wisdom, virtues of character are developed through habituation.

    • Important virtues like just actions and temperance are shaped by repeated practice and ethical choices.

VIRTUES OF CHARACTER

Acquiring Virtue

  • Habituation Process

    • Virtues are acquired through habit and practice rather than innate qualities.

    • Following correct actions leads to the development of just character.

Types of Virtue

  • Divided into:

    • Virtue of thought, cultivated through education and philosophical reflection.

    • Virtue of character, developed through habitual actions reflecting moral choices.

The Mean

  • Mean Between Extremes

    • Aristotle describes virtue as a mean between two extremes: excess and deficiency (e.g., courage is between recklessness and cowardice).

  • Each virtue defines how to act properly in different contexts, maintaining balance in feelings and actions.

READING QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION PROMPTS

Discussion Questions for Rawls:

  1. Nonhuman Animals: How might social contract theories extend to include ethical obligations toward nonhuman animals?

  2. Inequalities and Justice: Do you agree with Rawls that inequalities due to birth and natural endowments should be compensated? Why or why not?

Discussion Questions for Aristotle:

  1. Missing Virtues: Are there any virtues you believe need inclusion in Aristotle's classification?

  2. Ethical Distinction: Which virtues or vices from Aristotle's listing do you see as distinctly ethical, and how do you differentiate them from other types of virtues?

Further Reading Suggestions

  • Explore contemporary interpretations of virtue ethics.

  • Review additional works on care ethics to understand moral significance in relationships.