Chapter 11: Personality

Personality: What It Is and How It Is Measured

• Definition: Personality is characterized by an individual's distinctive behavioral, thinking, and emotional styles.

Describing and Explaining Personality

• The study of personality aims to identify psychological differences among individuals.

• Explanations stem from:

  • Prior Events: Past experiences influencing behavior.

  • Anticipated Events: Future expectations shaping personality traits.

Measuring Personality (Part 1)

• Personality Inventories:

  • Based on self-reporting techniques.

  • Typically use multiple-choice or forced-choice formats.

  • Example: MMPI–2–RF is a relevant clinical questionnaire assessing personality and psychological disorders, employing actuarial methods for analysis.

Projective Techniques

• Use of ambiguous stimuli to elicit unique responses.

• Responses reveal deeper aspects of an individual’s personality.

• Example: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) encourages storytelling based on ambiguous images.

Measuring Personality (Part 2)

• Integration of technology in personality assessment:

  • High-tech methods including real-time computer analysis and automated behavior identification through social media.

The Trait Approach

• The Trait Approach categorizes personality through observable patterns:

  • Challenges:

    • Identifying core traits from numerous adjectives.

    • Determining the hereditary aspects of traits.

• Traits: Stable dispositions influencing behavior and may guide motivations.

The Search for Core Traits (Part 1)

• Early research categorized personality traits using adjectives organized hierarchically.

• Factor Analysis: Helps identify core factors:

  • **The Big Five: ** Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion.

  • Demonstrates cross-cultural reliability and observer agreement.

The Big Five Factor Model

• Dimensions of Personality:

  • Conscientiousness: Organized vs. Disorganized.

  • Agreeableness: Softhearted vs. Ruthless.

  • Neuroticism: Worried vs. Calm.

  • Openness to Experience: Imaginative vs. Down-to-earth.

  • Extraversion: Social vs. Reserved.

Hot Science: Personality on the Surface

• Digital footprints through social media provide insights into personality traits.

• Smartphone data reflect traits, with correlations found between behavior (agreeableness/extraversion) and communication patterns.

Traits as Biological Building Blocks (Part 1)

• Changes in personality can arise from:

  • Brain damage or pathologies (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease).

  • Pharmaceutical interventions that alter brain chemistry.

Traits as Biological Building Blocks (Part 2)

• Behavioral Genetics: Examines twin studies revealing:

  • Genetic contribution (40%) vs. environmental influence (60%) on personality.

Traits as Biological Building Blocks (Part 3)

• Multiple studies emphasize genetic importance over shared environmental experiences.

• Emerging associations link personality with chromosomal influences.

Traits as Biological Building Blocks (Part 4)

• Gender Differences:

  • Women: Verbally expressive, nurturing, relational aggression.

  • Men: Physically aggressive, assertive, higher self-esteem.

  • Differences attributed to social and biological factors.

A World of Difference: Male vs. Female Personality Traits

• Research indicates some differences, with controversy over biological vs. cultural influences.

• Bem Sex Role Inventory: Suggests androgyny can be beneficial; men and women may share more personality traits than differences.

Traits Are Wired in the Brain

• Neurophysiological mechanisms:

  • Eysenck's theory emphasizes reticular formation's role in extraversion and anxiety mechanisms.

  • Gray’s systems (BAS & BIS) connect traits to brain activity variations.

The Psychodynamic Approach: Forces Beneath Awareness

• Freudian perspective views personality as driven by unconscious desires and conflicts.

• Formulated through life's experiences and repressed instincts, which can manifest as emotional disorders.

Structure of the Mind

• Three Systems:

  • Id: Instinctual desires.

  • Ego: Reality mediator.

  • Superego: Moral compass.

• Interactions among these systems cause anxiety, mitigated through defense mechanisms (e.g., rationalization, projection).

Psychosexual Stages and Personality Development

• Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

• Each stage involves conflicts (e.g., Oedipus) impacting personality.

The Humanistic–Existential Approach

• Focus on individual choices and positive growth:

  • Emphasis on self-actualization and the impact of an open, supportive environment.

• Self-actualization versus fulfillment: Growth occurs within supportive contexts promoting potentials and abilities.

Flow Experience

• Described by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: state attained when tasks match individual capabilities, lying between anxiety and boredom.

The Social–Cognitive Approach

• Personality shaped by how an individual thinks about and responds to daily situations.

• Person-situation controversy: Explores whether behavior is more dictated by personal traits or situational influences.

Personal Constructs

• Personal Constructs: Frameworks people use to interpret experiences, influencing personality variability and responses to different contexts.

Personal Goals and Expectancies

• Outcome Expectancies: Influence of perceived likely outcomes on behavior.

• Locus of Control: Internal vs. external perspectives impact character responses.

The Self: Personality in the Mirror

• Self-recognition emerges around 18 months, fostering reflective thinking and self-related conceptions.

• Self-Concept: Defines one’s traits and behaviors.

Self-Concept Organization

• Stored in autobiographical memory, structured via:

  • Self-narrative and Self-schemas (traits defining self).

  • Discrepancies may exist between the self-narrative and actual traits.

Causes and Effects of Self-Concept

• Social feedback shapes self-perception, contributing to behavioral consistency.

• Self-verification: The pursuit of confirming existing self-concept.

Self-Esteem (Part 1)

• Definition: Evaluation of self-worth and acceptance.

• Sources include recognition from others and personal achievements.

Self-Esteem (Part 2)

• Reflects high social status, sense of security, and may incorporate traits like narcissism and self-serving bias.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

• Questionnaire format assessing self-esteem through subjective indicators.

But Can We All Be Above Average?

• Self-serving Bias: Highlights human tendency to attribute success to self and failures to external factors.

• Narcissism: Emphasizes a grandiose self-perception often in search of admiration.