Sociology Test 2

Chapter 8) Stratification, Class, and Inequality

Day 11

I. Basic Concepts

Social Stratification:

Inequalities between groups in society

Different access to material or symbolic rewards

Class divisions

Intersectionality:

When different sources of inequality crossover

Structured Inequalities:

Social inequalities that are built into economic and political systems

II. Systems of Stratification

Slavery:

Ownership of others as property

Illegal in all countries

Caste:

One's social status is given for life

Associated with India

Class:

Class systems allow movement (between classes)

Positions are achieved

Classes are economically based

Class systems are large-scale (Macro)

Things that determine class:

Income, ownership of wealth, education, occupation, and lifestyle

Life Chances:

Opportunities for achieving economic prosperity

Income:

Money received from paid wages and salaries or earned from investments

"Real Income" -- income excluding increases due to inflation

Inflation -- a general increase in the price of things

Real Income is up, but not everyone has shared equally in the increased productivity of the U.S. economy

Income Equality has been increasing dramatically since the 1970s

Wealth:

Measured in terms of net worth (of all assets one owns minus debts)

Trends in wealth inequality are similar to trends with income inequality

Some argue wealth is the real indicator of social class

While most people make their money from work;

The wealthy derive the bulk of their money through investments, some of which may be inherited

The primary source of wealth for most Americans is their home

The wealthy have wealth in financial assets (form of investment)

Many Americans have large debts: and owe money on unpaid credit cards, student loans, automobiles, and home mortgages

There are significant differences in wealth by race

Education:

Education is one of the strongest predictors of occupation, income, and wealth later in life

A college education pays off (in the long run)

Hourly earning of college graduates are nearly double that of people without a degree

(Economic Policy Institute, 2017)

Earning vary widely by major, however

Other Indicators of Social Class & Social Prestige

Occupation

Different occupations vary in terms of perceived prestige (p.255)

Occupations that require more education and public service often rank higher in perceived prestige

Lifestyle

Cultural tastes and lifestyle choices also reflect perceived social class

Consumer choices, leisure interests, media, etc.

Social capital; "cultural capital" or "taste" (Bourdieu 1984)

Income and wealth limit lifestyle choices for the poor

III. Theories of Stratification

Marx: Capitalism and the Analysis of Class

Marx said: Capitalism has produced two social classes

A person's class position depends on their relationship to the: Means of Production (how things are produced)

Bourgeoisie (owners):

Own the means of production

Proletariat (workers):

Sell their labor to the Bourgeoisie

Surplus Values:

According to Marx, workers produce more than the cost of hiring them

The excess value goes to the owners as profit

Marx believed that over time a gap would grow between a wealthy minority and a poor majority

Marx believed life would get worse for the working class, and they would push for the overthrow of capitalism

Communism would replace Capitalism, with common ownership of the means of production

Marx was wrong that wages would not rise for the working class

Income has gone up; standards of living in Western nations have gone up dramatically

However, poverty, homelessness, and stratification remain

There hasn't been a movement towards a classless society, or widespread "class consciousness" in the Western world

Weber: Class and Status; weber's criticism of Marx

There are Three dimensions of stratification; not just social class

Class

A person's skills and credentials matter in their class position (not just their relationship to the means of production)

People with qualifications and credentials are more marketable (with higher life chances)

Status

Status is not the same thing as social class

Some positions are high in "status", but low in wealth

Other positions are low in "status", but high in wealth

Party

Power is distinct from status and class

Different groups have different levels of political power and influence

Davis and Moore: The Functions of Stratification

Davis and Moore argued that stratification benefits society: How?

Thought that Certain occupations are functionally more important

These positions require special skills

The pool of people with the skills and experience for these occupations is limited

There need to be incentives/rewards to attract the best candidates to these positions:

Money, power, prestige

Criticism of the view?

It is difficult to measure the functional importance of a role (Tumin 1953)

Which jobs are the most important? Howe much should they be rewarded

Also, people without special access to top positions may be blocked from reaching their full potential

Day 12

I. Research on Social Stratification Today

Social class has a significant impact on lifestyle:

Consumption, education, health, and access to political power

The lines between social classes are not clear cut

II. Social Classes

A stratification system with more layers: (book describes each in more detail)

The Upper Class:

The Middle Class:

The Working Class:

The Lower Class:

III. Social Mobility

Social Mobility:

Movement up or down different social class positions:

Upward Mobility

Downward Mobility

IV. Poverty in the United States

Absolute Poverty:

Not meeting the minimum requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence

(common in poorer developing countries)

Relative Poverty:

A measure of inequality -- being poor as compared with the standards of living of the majority

(common in industrialized countries)

Measuring Poverty

Poverty Line:

An official government measure to define those living in poverty

($26,000 a year for a family of four is considered poverty)

Working Poor:

People who work but who's earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line

Poverty, Race, and Ethnicity:

Poverty rates are much higher among most minority groups (p.275)

The Feminization of Poverty:

An increase in the proportion of the poor who are women (p.276)

Often leads to children in poverty

People 65+ in Poverty:

Social Security and Medicare have been important in lifting many older adults out of poverty.

Homelessness

Homelessness is a growing problem across the U.S.

Homelessness is problem in cities and rural areas

There are more young men of working age who are homeless today

Reasons for homelessness include:

Lack of affordable housing

Insufficient income

Drugs, alcohol

Mental health -- less room in mental hospitals leaves many with no alternative

Film: Inequality for all (Robert Reich)

1) What does it mean to be "middle class"?

2) what does our economy need?

3) who are the real job creators?

4) why is it hard to build wealth (upward mobility)?

5) why did economy boom during the great prosperity?

Chapter 9) Global Inequality

Day 13

Thought Assignment:

1. What are the three richest people in the world? (2022)

Elon musk, Jeff Bezos, Bernard Arnault

2. What is the source of their wealth for each?

Elon Musk (Tesla & SpaceX); Jeff Bezos (Amazon); Bernard Arnault (Louis Vuitton, TAG Heuer Watches, and DOM Pérignon champagne)

3. How has globalization impacted the # of billionaires?

Skyrocketing

4. How has globalization impacted global inequality?

Growing with # of billionaires

5. From fig. 9.1 on p.294, which nation has the largest distribution of the world's wealth?

United States

Globalization

Increased economic, political, and social (cultural) interconnectedness of the world

An emerging world system & single social order

Globalization has produced great wealth for some:

The # of billionaires in the world has gone up drastically since 1987

The richest 1% possess almost as much of the world's wealth as the remaining 99%

Others have entered the labor force, but remain in poverty

Work conditions remain poor and unsafe for many around the world...

I. Basic Concepts

Global Inequality:

Systematic differences in wealth and power among countries

The difference in living standards between wealthy and poor nations is huge

GNI:

Gross National Income:

An estimate of a country's (per person) income

Rich and Poor Countries by Income (see map 9.1; p.296-7)

High Income Countries:

Industrialized economies

16% of the world's population, but commands 63% of the world's wealth -- by total GNI (world bank 2020)

Middle Income Countries:

Have started to industrialize, but are not as wealthy as high-income nations

In 2018, 75% of the world's population, but just 36% of the economic output

Low Income Countries:

Agricultural economies -- just beginning to industrialize

The poorest countries; average annual income of only $841 in 2018

The highest population growth rates are in the poorest nations

Global Economic Well-being:

Is life improving across the globe? (based on world bank measures p.298-99)

Globally: The number of lower-middle and low-income countries has dropped

Twenty years ago, 60% of the world's population lived in low-income countries; today it is 9%

The economic growth of China and India accounts for much of the upward movement

China's average income has gone up dramatically (p.299)

The number of people living in high-income countries has stayed the same of 15-16% of the world's population

Beyond Economic measures of Global Well Being

There are problems with using only income as a measurement of success:

Using average income masks income inequality within each country

The wealthiest people within a country may have high incomes;

Which gives the impression that the quality of life is shared evenly

GNI does not measure economic activity outside of cash transactions

Such as barter, street vendors, the value of crops, animals, and other non-cash transactions

People in the poorest nations live in Absolute Poverty (often life or death)

While people in wealthy nations live in Relative Poverty

Another Approach to Quality of Life

Compared to measuring quality of life in terms of income alone;

The Capabilities Approach (Amartya Sen)

Measuring quality of life in terms of social indicators;

It emphasizes the degree to which people are capable of achieving a life they value, given the opportunities they face

Basic capabilities (Childhood survival, education, technologies)

More advanced capabilities (health care, higher education)

While incomes have gone up; in poor nations there remains:

A lack of basic schooling; infant mortality, and starvation

Also a lack of access to high-quality education and technology

Day 14

II. Research on Global Inequality

Numbers that illustrate inequality:

1 in 9 people in the world suffer from chronic hunger

vast majority live in developing countries

Asia, pacific, sub-Saharan Africa (p.312)

The population is expected to grow from 7.7 billion to 9.7 billion, having an enormous impact on global resources

Health

People in low-income countries are more likely to suffer malnourishment, starvation, and famine (World Bank 2019)

Poor countries often become dumping grounds for consumer electronics and other toxic waste from high income countries

and they suffer from environmental pollution from factories

Children in low-income countries are 26 times more likely to die before they reach age five than children in high-income countries

Hunger and Malnutrition

Hunger today is the result of both natural and social forces

Shortages are often due to severe weather or social conflict

Countries that are affected by malnutrition are too poor to pay for technologies to increase food production;

and too poor to afford food imports

Education and Literacy

Education and literacy are paths to economic development

Low-income countries lack high-quality public education

In low-income countries, only 71% of males and 50% of females (over age 15) are able to read and write

III. Theories of Global Inequality

Questions from this chapter:

What causes global inequality?

How can it be overcome?

Neoliberal Theories:

Nations in poverty will benefit if businesses and consumers are free from governmental constraints to make their own economic decisions

Governments should not dictate which goods to produce, what prices to charge, or how much to pay workers

These decisions should be left to market demands -- what consumers want (The "free market")

In summary: Follow the Western world's path to capitalism (and reject communism) in order to get out of poverty

Modernization Theory (Rostow):

The view that low income-countries need to "modernize"

and give up on their traditional culture and institutions -- in order to become more like high-income western nations

Low-income nations were encouraged to take loans for development projects

Dependency Theories:

Rejects modernization theory's view that low-income nations have themselves to blame for poverty

Influenced by Karl Marx;

Theorists and economists from low-income nations argued instead that capitalism is the problem, not the solution

Global capitalist relations have made poor countries dependent on rich countries

Locking them in a relationship of exploitation -- leading to poverty

Core (wealthy countries) -- extract resources from weaker countries

Periphery (poor countries) -- provide resources to core countries

Dependency Theory:

A major influence on global poverty was the history of:

Colonialism (19th and early 20th centuries):

When powerful nations colonized other countries to extract raw materials and control markets

After WWII, the exploitation continued with corporations locating in low-income countries, utilizing cheap labor and raw materials

Low income countries were prevented from developing on their own

Dependent Development:

The idea that poor countries can develop economically; but only in ways shaped by their reliance on wealthier countries

World-Systems Theory (Wallerstein):

A theory that emphasizes the expansion for a single capitalist world economy

Influenced by Dependency Theory

It places an emphasis on global interconnections among countries:

Emphasis: unequal and exploitative relationship between: Core, Semi-periphery, and Periphery countries

EX: Global Commodity Chains (Apple iPhone, p.306)

Worldwide networks of labor and production; goods are produced and sold around the world

Global Productions of goods has resulted in job loss in the US;

but, also a pathway to economic development for other parts of the world (like East Asia)

The Theory of Global Capitalism (Robinson):

Influenced by the rise of transnational corporations who are not loyal to any one country

Stateless corporations that are global rather than national

A transnational capitalist class is the major player in the global economy today (not individual nations)

Its power is exerted through transnational organization that oversee the global economy

(the World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank)

The social class is international;

its interests are global, it pushes for unregulated free trade

it shares similar interests and lifestyles

I. Evaluating Theories of Global Inequality:

Neoliberal Theories:

Recommends that poor nations adopt modern capitalist institutions to promote economic development

Dependency Theories:

Emphasis on how wealthy nations have exploited poor nations

World Systems theory:

Looks at the world economy as a whole; including global commodity chains

The theory of global capitalism:

Emphasis on the emerging transnational capitalist class; which is reshaping the world

Day 15

Presentation: Winnie Byanyima

1) What is Winnie Byanyima's Argument about wealth, inequality, and democracy?

These inequalities between rich and poor are man-made; We are cheated by having such inequalities that inhibit the growth of possible geniuses and bright futures; wealth is being sucked to the top of the chain; the wealthy stay wealthy and only get wealthier due to the system; the growing inequality is destroying the democracy/freedom we are supposed to have; by loosening the grip of the wealthy on the people and the government, we can build a more human economy;

Chapter 10) Inequality on the basis of Gender and Sexuality

Day 16

I. Basic Concepts

Sex:

The biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females and males

Gender:

Psychological, social, and cultural differences between women and men, such as personality, goals, and social roles

Social Construction of Gender

Theorists who believe in the social construction of gender reject biological bases for gender differences

Biological Essentialism:

Rationalizes and legitimizes gender differences as the natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of women and men

Gender Expression:

How one chooses to convey gender identity through behavior, clothing, voice, mannerisms, and other external characteristics

"Do Gender"

Our clothing choices, how we wear our hair, and the pitch and intonation of our voice are all indicators of how we "do gender" each day

Margaret Mead's research about Gender Roles

Margaret observed a wide variety of gender role prescriptions -- that any claims to the universality of gender roles had to be rejected

Navajo's belief about Gender

The Navajo believe that to maintain harmony, there must be a balanced interrelationship between the feminine and the masculine within a single individual

Cisgender:

A person whose gender identity aligns with the sex assigned to them at birth

Transgender:

An "umbrella term" used to describe the full range of people whose gender identity does not conform to what is typically associated with their sex assigned at birth

Intersex:

Describes individuals possessing both male and female genitalia

George Murdock and Talcott Parsons influence on Functionalist approaches to gender

George Murdock concluded that the gender-based division of labor is present in all cultures and that, although not the result of biological programming, it is the most logical and efficient basis for the organization of society

Talcott Parsons saw the family as operating most efficiently with a clear-cut sexual division of labor in which women carry out expressive roles, providing care and security to the children and offering them emotional support, and men perform an instrumental role -- namely, the breadwinner

"Expressive": emotional support, providing care and security

"Instrumental": fulfilling necessities, money makers

Feminist Theory:

A sociological perspective the emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women; share the desire to explain gender inequality in society and to work to overcome it

Liberal Feminism: gender inequality is the result of unequal access to civil rights

Radical Feminism: gender inequality is the result of male dominance

Black Feminism: gender inequality in gender, class, and race

Transnational Feminism: highlights the global processes way of influencing gender relations -- colonialism, racism, and imperialism

Postmodern Feminism: rejects the claim that a grand theory can explain the position of women in society

Patriarchy:

The dominance of men over women systematically and socially

Day 17

I. Research on Gender Today

Gender Inequality:

The inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status

Gendered inequalities in Education

Reading texts often perpetuate gender images (but this is changing)

Teachers interact differently with male and female students (Sadker and Sadker, 1994)

boys receive more teacher attention and instruction time (p.353)

boys are punished more often

The Gendering of College Majors

Men and Women differ in the majors they choose

consistent with gender socialization:

women focus on fields associated with care and nurturing

men pursue fields that emphasize logic and analysis

Glassdoor (2017) found that women were more likely to major fields such as:

social work, healthcare, nursing, and education

Men in fields like engineering and computer science

(science technology engineering math fields)

Feminist scholars cite this as part of the reason why the gender pay gap persists

Gendered inequalities in the workplace

Women account for roughly half (47%) of the total workforce

compared to 1950 (30%)

Nearly 57% of women today ware employed outside the home

compared to 34% in 1950

Women's entry into the paid labor force dates back to the early 1970s

while poor, immigrant and ethnic minority women have had higher rates of employment for pay

Women Working with Children

In 1978, only 14% of married women with preschool-age children worked full time year round

Today (in 2022), it is up to 67%

Unmarried mothers are more likely than married mothers to work during their child-rearing years

Occupational Segregation & Gender Typing:

When jobs are stereotyped as either "male" or "female"

With women typically holding occupations of lower status and pay;

and men holding jobs of higher status and pay

Today, women are entering occupations once labeled "men's jobs"; across a range of professions (p.358)

From 2008-2009, women earned more doctoral degrees than men

The "Glass Ceiling":

A promotion barrier that prevents women's upward mobility

When women progress into middle management positions, but not beyond them

Gendered inequalities in families: division of household labor

Childcare, eldercare, and daily housework is disproportionately done by women

Wives do most of the daily chores, while husbands take more occasional tasks

Studies on (p.367) illustrate this point

Women also spend more time on child-rearing (than men)

Thought Assignment: From the Textbook (p.369-376); pick one example for each topic:

1) Gender inequality in Politics

2) Sex segregation

3) Human Capital Theory

4) Increasing Gender Pay equity -- lessons from Sweden

5) How gender inequality affects men

Chapter 11) Race, Ethnicity, and Racism

Day 18

I. Basic Concepts

Minority Group:

A group in society who are disadvantaged because of their physical or cultural characteristics

Not just a numerical category

Have a sense of group solidarity

Race:

A socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans

A highly contested concept

A socially constructed category

Based on the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans

(Associated with phenotype and ancestry)

Ethnicity:

A social identity related to ancestry and cultural differences

Members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally distinct from other groups

Can be based on: Language, History, Religion, and styles of dress

Ethnic Differences can be learned

It is purely social/cultural

For some, ethnicity is central to their identity

For others it is irrelevant, or not thought of very often

II. Thinking about Racism

Racism:

A form of prejudice

It can be defined in different ways:

Racism can refer to specific beliefs of racial supremacy

Or, it can refer to practices such as stereotyping

Prejudice:

Holding preconceived ideas about individuals or groups

Prejudices can be positive or negative

Stereotyping:

Thinking in terms of fixed or inflexible categories

Usually involves feelings of hostility or anger towards group

Scapegoats:

Individuals or groups blamed for things they did not do

It is often directed against groups that are relatively powerless

Discrimination:

Actual behavior that denies resources or rewards to a particular group

Must be distinguished from prejudice

III. Racism in the United States Today

Color-Blind Racism (Bonilla-Silva 2006):

The act of pretending race does not exist

When racial inequality is maintained by color blindness itself

When people are unaware of their insensitivity

A means of maintaining racial inequality without appearing racist

By attempting to act as if race does not exist, people perpetuate inequalities

White Privilege:

The unacknowledged and unearned assets that benefit whites in their everyday lives

Taken for granted

Institutional Racism:

When Racism occurs through established institutions of society

When major institutions have racist practices built into their operations

Example: Redlining in America

Overt Racism:

When Racism is expressed overtly through individual attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs

It can be sustained by the racist statements of political leaders

Racial Microaggressions (Chester M. Pierce; Derald Wing Sue):

Slights, indignities, or acts of disrespect that are hurtful

IV. Race and Racism in Historical and Comparative Perspective

The history of Western Colonialism

Led to the peopling of the Americas & South Africa, Australia and New Zealand

Europe to North America (45 million people)

Europe to Central and South America (20 million people)

Europe to Africa and Australasia (17 million people)

Africa to the Americas (10 million people)

In all cases, the indigenous populations were decimated by disease, war, genocide, and European rule

Colonization:

In formerly colonized territories,

Indigenous populations are now impoverished ethnic minorities

Throughout European expansion,

Ethnocentric attitudes caused colonist to believe they were on a civilizing mission to the rest of the world (as Christians)

Europeans believed themselves superior to other peoples

Early Scientific Racism:

The misuse of scientific research to justify beliefs about superiority of inferiority of particular racial groups

During the early period of colonization

Day 19

Worksheet Notes:

1) Industrial development in the north combined with the mechanization of agriculture in the south produced a progressive movement of African Americans northward

2) In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed by congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, banning discrimination in public facilities, education, employment, and any agency receiving government funds

3) The term Latino refers to people descended from Latin America, while Hispanic tends to refer to anyone living in the United States descended from Spanish-speaking regions

4) Based on Figure 11.1, what is happening to the percentage of the White population in the United States?

The number of white people is either decreasing or being overtaken by other ethnicities

5) Half a million Cubans fled communism after the rise of Fidel Castro in 1959, and the majority of these settled in Florida

6) As a result of the war in Vietnam, some 350,000 refugees from that country alone entered the United States in the 1970s

7) Assimilation meant that new immigrant groups would assume the attitudes and language of the dominant White Community

8) A newer model of ethnic relations is pluralism, in which ethnic cultures exist separately yet participate in the larger society's economic and political life

9) Melting Pot:

The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources

10) Multiculturalism:

A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life

11) Immigration:

The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement

12) Emigration:

The movement of people out of one country to settle in another

13) What are the four tendencies that Stephen Castles and Mark Miller (1993) identified to characterize migration patterns in the coming years?

Acceleration:

Migration across borders is occurring in greater numbers than ever before

Diversification:

Most countries now receive immigrants of many different types -- in contrast with earlier times, when particular forms of immigration, such as labor immigration or refugees, were predominant

Globalization:

Migration has become more global, involving a greater number of countries as both sender and recipients

Feminization:

A growing number of migrants are women, making contemporary migration much less male dominated than previously. The increase reflects changes in the global labor market, including the growing demand for domestic workers, the expansion of sex tourism, "trafficking" in women, and the "mail-order brides" phenomenon

14) Diaspora:

The dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances

15) The most extreme and devastating form of group relations involves Genocide -- the systematic destruction of a racial, political, or cultural group

Chapter 13) Government, Political Power, and Social Movements

Day 20

I. Basic Concepts

Freedom -- what does it mean to be free?

The Freedom House Organization (2019) -- Based on a survey of political rights and civil liberties

Finds that 44% of the world's population can be classified as living in "free" countries

The rest live in "partly free" or "not free" countries

Political Rights:

Open and fair elections, a multiparty system, absence of governmental corruption

Civil Liberties:

Freedom of expression and association (with other people and groups), the rule of law, and individual rights

Democracy:

A political system that allows citizens to participate in political decision-making

Representative Democracy:

A type of democracy in which elected representatives hold power

Monarchies:

Systems of government in which unelected kings or queens rule

Constitutional Monarchs:

Kings or Queens who are largely figureheads

Real power rests in the hands of other political leaders

Populist Authoritarianism:

A style of governance characterized by assertive leadership

Emphasizes security over civil liberties

Anti-Immigration

Opposed to multiculturalism

Anti-globalization

Populism:

The belief that politics should reflect the needs and interests of ordinary people rather than those of elite individuals or groups

Authoritarianism:

A political system in which the governing bodies or leaders use force to maintain control

Nation:

People with a common identity that ideally includes shared culture, language, and feelings of belonging

State:

A political apparatus ruling over a given territory, whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force

Nation-state:

Particular types of states; characteristic of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power

Sovereignty:

The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territory

Failed States:

States in which the central government has lost authority and resorts to deadly force to retain power

Nationalism:

A set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community

Local Nationalism:

The belief that communities that share a (separate) cultural identity should have political autonomy from a nation-state

Power:

The ability of individuals or groups to make their own interests or concerns count, even when others resist

Authority:

A form of power that is seen as legitimate

Voluntary consent to a government's power

Influence:

The ability to affect others' behavior without coercion or other forms of direct control

EX: today: "influencers" (p.477)

Citizens:

Members of a political community that have rights and duties associated with membership

Civil Rights:

Legal rights held by citizens (freedom of speech, religion, etc. p.478)

Political Rights:

Rights of political participation (right to vote and run for office)

Social Rights:

The right of every individual to enjoy a minimum standard of economic welfare and security (benefits, unemployment, minimum wage, etc.)

Welfare State:

Exists when government organizations provide material benefits for citizens

Revolutions:

Occur when an existing political order is overthrown

Social Movements:

Large groups of people who seek to accomplish, or block, a process of social change (p.471)

II. Theories of Democracy

Democratic Elitism (Weber)

Weber argued that there are limits to direct democracy

Not everyone can participate in the daily process of running a country

Complex societies demand expertise (knowledge & skills)

Unelected experts are necessary

Full-time bureaucratic officials must play a large part in running a country

Therefore, democratic participation is limited to the election of political leaders by voting

Pluralist Theories

There are numerous groups representing different political interests (wants & desires)

These different groups divide power; no one group is dominant

Democracy involves a balance of the competing interest groups

Political parties must be responsive to different interests

Competition among diverse interest groups occurs at the national, state, and local levels

The Power Elite (C. Wright Mills)

Mills argued that there has been a centralization of power across the (1) political order, (2) the economy, and (3) the military

In Politics -- more federal power

The Economy -- more corporate power

The Military -- has grown to a giant establishment

All three have merged into a unified system of power (the "deep state")

A power elite with shared interests

There is movement among top positions across the three spheres

The role of the Military

"The Military-Industrial complex" (President Dwight Eisenhower):

A source of great power and influence (and spending)

Day 21

Politics Video:

1) How did the Supreme Court change campaign financing with the "Citizens United" Ruling?

- Allowed the spending of an unlimited amount of money on elections; has to go to outside groups

2) What do the "Outside Groups" do?

- They design advertisements without the influence of the candidate and take snippets from videos, articles, and other information to either raise or lower their popularity

3) How do we know the difference between an "issue" add and a "campaign" add?

- The use of magic words; the types of words that define the difference between an issue and a campaign ad that have been strictly defined under law

4) Why is it hard to know who the outside groups are?

- They stay hidden by having obscure connections and unclear contact with other people so they can fight back against unfair election laws; unable to find much information on groups

5) Do you think money in politics is a form of corruption?

- Yes, it becomes a tool for manipulation and can be used to influence elections unfairly