Language: a structured system of symbols used to communicate meaning

Language is:

• Symbolic: words are used to reference/ represent something.

• Arbitrary: no direct or intrinsic connection to the thing that it represents, words mean whatever we want them to mean/whatever we mean we assign to them.

  • Exception: onomatopoeia (a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning, they are iconic).

• Rule Governed:

  • Phonological Rules

    • Deals with correct pronunciation of words

  • Syntactic Rules

    • Dictates the order of words for intended meaning

    • syntax: sentence structure, impacts meaning and clarity

  • Semantic rules 

    • Specific meanings of individual words

  • Pragmatic rules

    • Specify implications of interpretations of statements.

    • Focus on the context (who, what, when, where, why), tone, and relationship with the person.

Language has layers of meaning.

• Denotative vs. Connotative meanings

  • Denotative (dictionary meaning); Connotation (attached meaning)

  • EX: home (building, people, safe?)

• Semantic triangle: symbol, reference, referent

• Loaded language: words with strongly positive or negative connotations, evoke a lot of feelings from others.
  

Language varies in clarity:

• Language is ambiguous: more than one possible meaning

• Concrete (specific object in the physical world) vs abstract (broad, ex: living being) words

Context and Culture

• Sapir-whorf hypothesis: language shapes a person's views of reality

  • Linguistic determinism vs relativism

  • Determinism: you can't think or experience things outside the language system that I know (ex: feel embarrassed for another person, German has a word for it)

  • Relativism: language determines our perceptions (ex: some native american groups use some language systems that are reflective of being and existing).
    

The Power of Words

Language expresses who we are

• Names: define and differentiate us

  • What characteristics can a name suggest about a person? (ethnicity, race, sex, religion, age)

Using words to persuade.

• Process of moving people to think or act in a certain way

  • Ethos: a speaker's respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character

  • Pathos: listener's emotions

  • Logos: listener's ability to reason (make judgments about the world based on evidence rather than emotion or intuition).

Credibility empowers us

• Def: Extent to which others find someone's words and actions trustworthy.

  • Cliches: phrases that were novel at one time but have lost their effect because of overuse (ex: make a difference, think outside the box)

  • Dialects: variations on a language that are shared by people of a certain region or social class

  • Equivocation: strategically vague language that disguises the speaker's true intentions

  • Weasel words: terms and phrases that are intended to mislead listeners by implying something that they don't say (ex: board, unsupported generalizations, like "People say that…") 

  • Allness Statements: implying that a claim is true without exception
    

Language connects us to others.

• Express affection (expressing things that show love, and care) and intimacy (expressing emotional closeness)

  • "I love you"

• Provides comfort and healing (encouragement, support, written or spoken, etc)

  • Acknowledge the loss: “I’m so sorry to hear about your sister’s accident. I know that everyone who knows her will miss her greatly.”

  • Express sympathy: “Words can’t express how sorry I feel. Please know that my heartfelt sympathies are with you.”

  • Offer a positive reflection: “I will always remember your sister’s wonderful sense of humor and her great compassion for others.”

  • Offer assistance: “Please remember I’m here for you, whatever you need. I’ll give you a call this weekend to see if there’s anything I can do for you.”
    

Using and Abusing Language

• Humor

  • Violates expectations

  • What value does humor bring to relationships?

• Euphemisms

  • Substituting vague terms or phrases for something that would be directly harsh or blunt (sugarcoating, beating around the bush) 

  • Examples: died v. passed away, fired v. letting you go.

• Slang

  • Powerful because it can connect you to a group

  • Can be informal or unclear if speaking to people from other groups

  • Examples?

  • Jargon: technical vocal of a certain occupation or profession

• Defamation: language that harms a person's reputation or image

  • Libel (​​a defamatory statement made in print or some other fixed medium) and slander (a defamatory statement made aloud)

• Profanity 

  • Context-specific

• Hate Speech

  • Specific forms of profanity meant to degrade, intimidate, or dehumanize particular groups.

  • Why does this kind of language still get utilized without serious consequences? It only has consequences if followed by an imminent threat.

Creating a Positive Climate

Communication Climate: the emotional tone of a relationship

• Confirming (make someone feel values, hear, imp., as they matter) v Disconfirming (imply complete lack of regard for other person, doesn't matter) Messages

• Supportive v. Defensive Provoking Behavior 

  • Evaluation (this sucks) v. Description (there are opp. for improvement)

  • Control (you can't… because my… ) v. Problem Orientation (figure out together)

  • Strategy (are you busy…) v. Spontaneity (I'm planning…)

  • Neutrality v. Empathy (I'm sorry, you must feel…)

  • Superiority (you don't know what you're doing) v. Equality

  • Certainty (you're wrong) v. Provisionalism (what leads you to believe?)

Improving Use of Language

• Separate Opinion and Fact

• Own your thoughts and feelings

  • I vs. You statements.