Westward Expansion, Texas, and the Mexican-American War

Westward Expansion

• Occupancy of the West:

  • Initially, Spain controlled most of the Trans-Mississippi West.
  • After Mexico gained independence from Spain, it assumed control of this territory.
  • The Oregon Territory was under joint occupation by Great Britain and America.

• Manifest Destiny:

  • The idea of manifest destiny explained the American desire to expand westward.
  • The term was coined by John O'Sullivan, editor of the Democratic Review.
  • O'Sullivan argued it was America's "manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence."
  • This was rooted in the belief that Americans had a God-given right to spread their civilization across the continent.

Texas

• Background:

  • The Transcontinental Treaty of 1819 with Spain established the southern border of the Louisiana Purchase, excluding Texas.
  • Some Americans felt Texas should have been included in the Louisiana Purchase and advocated for its "reannexation."

• Mexican Settlement Policy:

  • Mexico aimed to strengthen its border by attracting settlers to Texas, offering land for nominal payments.
  • Settlers were expected to become Roman Catholics and Mexican citizens.
  • Stephen Austin led the first group of American settlers into Texas.

• Demographics and Tensions:

  • By the late 1820s, Texas was populated by approximately 15,000 white Americans, 1,000 slaves, and 5,000 Tejanos (Mexican residents of Texas).
  • Mexican officials grew concerned as American settlers largely remained American in culture and allegiance.
  • In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery in Texas and forbade further immigration from the U.S.

• Texas Revolution:

  • General Antonio López de Santa Anna rose to power in Mexico and became dictator.
  • Tensions between the American Texans and Santa Anna's regime led to skirmishes.
  • Sam Houston was appointed commander-in-chief of the Texans.

• The Alamo:

  • Texan forces were besieged at the Alamo by the Mexican army for 12 days.
  • The Mexicans killed all the male defenders.
  • There were sixteen women, children and servants that survived.
  • The Mexican army suffered heavy losses of 1,544.
  • The event inspired the Texans to mount a fanatical resistance.

• Battle of San Jacinto:

  • Sam Houston and his forces surprised the Mexican army at the San Jacinto River.
  • Texans yelled, "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" Goliad was another battle that ended badly for the Texans.
  • 630 Mexicans were killed, and only nine Texans died.
  • Santa Anna was captured, securing Texan independence in twenty minutes.

• Republic of Texas:

  • Texas won the war and set its boundary at the Rio Grande, though Mexico disputed this boundary.
  • Texans drafted a constitution and elected Sam Houston as president.
  • Texas voted for annexation to the U.S. shortly after gaining independence.
  • Andrew Jackson, then president of the U.S., declined annexation to avoid sectional division over the issue of slavery.

• International Recognition and Slavery Concerns:

  • Texas existed as the Republic of Texas, recognized by Great Britain and France.
  • Southern slave owners favored annexation to add another slave state to the Union.
  • There were concerns about British abolitionist influence on Texas.

Annexation Debate and Election of 1844

• Key Issue:

  • The annexation of Texas was a central issue in the election of 1844.
  • Whig candidate Henry Clay opposed annexation.
  • Martin Van Buren, expected to be the Democratic nominee, also opposed annexation and lost the nomination.

• James Polk:

  • James Polk won the Democratic nomination and the presidency.
  • The Democratic platform advocated for the "reoccupation of Oregon and the reannexation of Texas."

• Annexation of Texas:

  • Outgoing President John Tyler interpreted Polk's victory as approval for Texas annexation.
  • Congress annexed Texas by joint resolution.
  • Texas entered the Union on December 19, 1845, and had the unique right to divide into five states.

Oregon Territory

• "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!"

  • Polk's campaign included gaining control of the entire Oregon Territory.
  • The slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" referred to the desired boundary at the 54°40' parallel.

• Negotiations with Britain:

  • Initially, Britain was unwilling to negotiate.
  • Eventually, Britain agreed to the 49th parallel boundary due to declining economic incentives (the fur trade was drying up).
  • Americans compromised on the 54°40' demand.

Mexican-American War

• Border Dispute:

  • Mexico severed diplomatic ties with the U.S. over the annexation of Texas.
  • A boundary dispute arose: Mexico claimed the Nueces River as the border, while the U.S. claimed the Rio Grande.

• Escalation:

  • Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to the Nueces River and John Slidell to Mexico to negotiate the border and purchase California and New Mexico.
  • Mexico refused to receive Slidell.
  • Polk sent Taylor to the Rio Grande, which Mexico considered an aggressive act.

• Outbreak of Hostilities:

  • A skirmish occurred between Mexican and American troops north of the Rio Grande.
  • Polk declared that "American blood has been spilled on American soil" and requested a war declaration from Congress.

• Divisions in America:

  • Whigs and New Englanders opposed the war, viewing it as a war for Southern slave owners.
  • The South and proponents of manifest destiny supported the war.
  • Congress voted in favor of the war declaration.

• Military Campaigns:

  • Taylor was ordered to hold his position, while General Winfield Scott led an amphibious expedition to Veracruz.
  • Taylor engaged in the Battle of Buena Vista, a tactical draw. Scott sieged and captured Veracruz, then marched into Mexico City.

• California and New Mexico:

  • American settlers in California revolted against Mexican rule and established the Bear Flag Republic.
  • The Army of the West secured New Mexico.

• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:

  • Ended the Mexican-American War.
  • Significantly increased the size of the U.S. territory.