anatomy chap 1,2,3,4

• Organism - is a single complete individual, capable of separately from other individuals 

• The organism is composed of organ systems. Organ systems are composed of organs, organs are composed of tissues, tissues are composed of cells, cells are composed of organelles, organelles are composed of molecules, and molecules are composed of atoms 

The first organ system shows the various nerves in the female human body. The second system shows the glands located in the throat, upper thoracic region, and lower abdominal region of the female body. The third illustration shows the blood vessels in the male human body. The fourth system shows the organs involved in the digestion of the female body. The fifth system shows the organs involved in procreation in the male body. The sixth system shows the organs involved in procreation in the female body.

• Sagittal - any plane dividing the body into right and left portions 

• Midsagittal - a plane dividing the body into equal right and left halves 

• parasagittal - any plane dividing the body into unequal right and left portions 

• Organ system classified in protection, support and movement : integumentary, skeletal, Muscular 

• Identify the information conveyed by the anatomical terminology of body orientation. :Where one structure is relative to another The direction of travel for a nerve or blood vessel

• The anatomical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior would be a : frontal 

•  the anatomical plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions: Transverse 

• the study of tissues, or groups of cells and their surrounding extracellular materials called? Histology 

• The directional term that indicates being closer to the body's surface is : superficial 

• Anterior - toward the front of the body 

• Posterior - back of the body 

• Ventral anterior side 

• Dorsal- toward the posterior side 

• Superior - above 

• Inferior - below 

• Cephalic - toward the head or superior end 

• Rostral - Toward the forehead or nose 

• Caudal - toward the tail or inferior end

• Medial- toward the midline of the body

• Lateral - away from the midline of the body

• Proximal - closer to the point of

• Distal - farther from the point of attachment or origin

• Ipsilateral - on the same side of the body

• Contralateral -on the opposite side of the body

• Superficial - closer to the surface of the body

• Deep- farther from the surface of the body

• Proximal - nearer to the trunk of the body

• Distal - farther from the trunk of the body

Two major body regions - appendicular and axial 

The

Term for internal organs is - viscera 

What type of membranes line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities? Serous

        * Squamous cells are best described as: thin and flat Squamous cells line the esophagus and air spaces (alveoli) of the lungs, and form the surface layer (epidermis) of the skin.

• Columnar—distinctly taller than wide, such as the inner lining cells of the stomach and intestines.

• As a cell doubles in diameter, its volume increases _eightfold while its surface area increases  fourfold

• Fusiform -spindle- or toothpick-shaped; elongated, with a thick middle and tapered ends, as in smooth muscle cells.

• Fibrous—long, slender, and threadlike, as in skeletal muscle cells and the axons (nerve fibers) of nerve cells.

• Cuboidal - roughly tall as they are wide 

• Plasma membrane: The outer boundary of the cell that regulates what enters and exits the cell. It is selectable - 

• - mem transport: filtration and simple diffusion- from high concentration to low 

• Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance within the cell, excluding the nucleus, that contains the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions.

• Cytoskeleton: A network of protein filaments and tubules that provides structural support and helps with cell movement and division.

• Organelles: Specialized structures within the cell that perform specific functions, such as the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.

• Inclusions: Non-living substances within the cell, such as stored nutrients, pigments, and waste products.

• Cytosol: The fluid portion of the cytoplasm, in which the organelles and inclusions are suspended.

• Cytology - the study of structure and function of cells 

• Relationship between cell surface area and volume- a smaller cell will have a 

better volume than a larger cell 

Plasma membrane 

• made up of two layered lipid film with protein 

• - some functions of plasma mem proteins , channel, receptor,..

• Two major things in a cell - plasma membrane and the inside of a cell is the cytoplasm 

• Microvilli - a cell dont move just increase the volume

• Cilia - cells are able to move the mu like an escalator move like a swimming up 

• Structures of cellular junctions - tight junction:     desmosomes:     gap junction: 

Cytosol and cytoskeleton 

Cell cycle 

• G1(growth and normal metabolic rates), S(DNA replication), G2 (growth and preparation for mitosis), [interphase] 

• Mitosis - prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase 

Chapter 3

•  a group of similar cells that performs some discrete function within an organ - tissue 

•  the extracellular material of a tissue - matrix 

• Tissue is composed of cells and matrix and the matrix is composed of fibers and ground substance 

• Anatomical structures are significantly longer in one direction than another (humorous and esophagus) 

• A tissue cut in a long direction is called a longitudinal section 

• One cut perpendicular to this is a crosssection 

• A section cut on a slant between a longitudinal and cross section is an oblique section 

Longitudinal sections

Cross sections

Oblique sections 

• Four primary tissues - epithelial, muscular, connective, nervous 

• Epithelium - sheet of tissue composed of one or more layers of closely adhering cells serve as internal lining 

• Surface of epithelial cell that faces the basement membrane is its basal surface 

• The one that faces away from basement mem toward internal cavity is apical surface 

• Side wall of a cell is called lateral surface 

• Mucus-secreting gland cells found in the epithelia of many mucous membranes are called goblet cells 

• An epithelial tissue with a single layer of tall columnar cells that gives a false appearance of stratification is pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

• Simple columnar                             pseudostratified columnar

•  Function of simple epithelia - allows rapid diffusion or transport

•  Transitional epithelium - urothelium / urinary tract 

• Stratified epithelia - multiple layer of cells 

• Functions of squamous epithelium - resisting abrasion, preventing entry of pathogens 

• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found in the skin while nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found in the mouth

• The most widespread epithelium in the body is - stratified squamous

3.2 connective tissue 

• Three types of protein fibers in fibrous connective tissue 

• collagenous , reticular, elastic 

• Most abundant protein in body - collagen

• Connective tissue fiber composed of elastin that is able to stretch and recoil - elastic 

• Tissue comprised of widely spaced cells and abundant extracurricular material - connective 

• Extracellular matrix absorbs compressive forces and protects cells from mechanical injury - ground substance

• Reticular fibers - 

• Adipocytes - 

• Mesenchymal cell 

• Elastic fibers - stretches 

• Collagen fibers - 

• Fibroblast - 

• Macrophage - 

3.3 fibrous connective tissue : loose 

• Areolar tissue- 

• Reticular tissue - 

• Adipose tissue - 

3.3 b fibrous connective tissue :Dense connective tissue 

• Dense regular - 

• Dense irregular - 

Supportive connective tissue 

• Osseous tissue - calcified, hard compact bone

Excitable tissue : are Nervous tissues and Muscular tissue - 

Basic tissue ? Nervous tissue 

3.4 Nervous tissue 

• Another name for nerve cells - neurons 

• Within nervous tissue a variety of cell types of group that protect and assist the neurons - neuroglia/glial cells 

• Part of neuron that contains the nucleus and most organelles is/ cell body - neurosoma 

• Conducting cells of nervous tissue are called - neurons 

• Axon (nerve fiber) - sends outgoing signals to other cells 

• Tissues described as excitable tissues because they are able to respond to outside stimuli by changing their membrane potential - Nervous and muscular 

3.4 Muscular tissue 

• Muscular tissue - specialized to contract when stimulated

• Muscular tissue consists of what type of cells or fibers - elongated fibers (cells) that are specialized to contract 

• Skeletal - has multinucleated and striated cells 

• Cardiac muscle cell - cardiomyocytes / joined end to end by junctions called intercalated discs / star  and has 

• Smooth - has one nucleus per cell / nonstriated, unciliated 

3.5 glands 

• Gland - cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in body

• Gland in body classified as - endocrine, exocrine

•  exocrine glands that release their secretions from vesicles by a process of exocytosis are - merocrine

• Apocrine - gland secrets product by producing single droplets of cytosol that bud from cell surface and get covered by plasma membrane 

• Three layers of mucous membrane - lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, epithelium 

• Serous membrane - lines an internal body cavity or covers the external surface of visceral / pericardium and pleural 

• Mucous - glands secrete a glycoprotein 

• Exocrine gland - secretes its products into another organ by way of a duct 

• Three types of body membranes - serous, cutaneous, mucous 

• Endothelium - internal surface of the circulatory system lined with simple squamous epithelium 

• Two processes by which tissue grow - cells increase number, existing cells get larger/ Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia 

• Atrophy - the shrinkage of tissue through a loss in cell size or number 

• Senile atrophy - results from normal aging 

• Disuse  atrophy - lack of use of an organ 

• Apoptosis - programmed cell death

•  Holocrine - 

Connective tissue cartilage 

• Hyaline cartilage - supposed to look like frosted glass 

• Elastic cartilage - 

• Fibrocartilage  -

Fluid connective tissue 

• Blood cells - dont have nucleus 

• White blood cells - do have nucleus 

Basic tissue type? Connective tissue 

4.1 gametogenesis

4.2 prenatal development 

• Pregnancy is divided into 3 month intervals called trimesters 

• First trimester (week 1 through 12) 

• Extends from fertilization through the first month of fetal life 

• Most precarious stage of development more than half of all embryos die in first trimester 

• Often due to chromosomal defects, stress, drugs, and nutritional deficiencies are most threatening 

• Second trimester (week 13 through 24) period in which organs complete most of their development 

• Becomes possible with sonography to see anatomical detail in fetus 

• By the end of trimester fetus looks distinctly human 

• With neonatal intensive care infants born at the end of the second trimester have a chance of survival 

• Third trimester (week 25 to birth) fetus grows rapidly and the organs achieve enough cellular differentiation to support life outside the womb 

• Some organs, such as the brain, liver, and kidneys become fully functional 

• At 35 weeks from fertilization the fetus typically weighs about 5.5 pounds

• Human development is divided into three stages called preembryonic, embryonic and fetal stages 

• Preembryonic stage 

• Zygote single diploid cell formed by the union of egg and sperm 

• Cleavage  cell division

• Morula a spherical stage consisting of 16 or more blastomeres 

• Blastocyst  a fluid filled spherical stage with an outer mass of trophoblast cells and inner mass of embryoblast cells becomes implanted in the inner mass forms a embryonic disc 

• Implantation; the conceptus becomes embedded in the lining of the uterus 

• Gastrulation: the embryonic cells migrate and differentiate into three tissue layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm)

• Embryonic stage 16 days - 8 weeks stage in which primary germ layers differentiate into organs and organ systems; ends when all organ systems are present 

• Fetal stage 8 - 38 weeks stage which organs grow and mature at a cellular level to the point of being capable of supporting life outside of the mothers body 

• Morula - consists of 16 or more cells and has a bumpy surface similar to a mulberry no larger than zygote 

• Cleavage merely produces smaller and smaller cells which increases cell surface area to volume 

• Morila lies free in the uterine cavity for 4 or 5 days and divides into 100 cells 

• Becomes a hollow sphere called the blastocyst with internal cavity called blastocoel 

• Blastocyst is a layer of squamous cells called the trophoblast which is to form part of placenta 

• Embryoblast - inside of trophoblast is an inner cell mass destined to become the embryo itself 

• Endometrium (mucosa of the uterus) process of attachment and becoming embedded in the endometrium is called implantation 

• Syncytiotrophoblast - layer of multinucleated cells that forms the outer covering of the chorionic villi in placenta superficial

• Cytotrophoblast - deep layer close to the embryoblast retains individual cells separated by plasma membrane 

• During implantation the embryoblast separates slightly from the trophoblast creating a narrow space between them called amniotic cavity 

• Embryoblast then flattens into an embryonic disc composed of columnar cells facing the amniotic cavity and thinner hypoblast facing away 

• Some hypoblast cells multiply and form a membrane enclosing the umbilical vesicle (yolk sac) 

• Embryogenesis - the placenta and other accessory structures develop the embryo begins receiving nutrition primarily from the placenta and germ layer differentiation

• formation of the neural tube

• Development of pharyngeal pouches

• Development of somites

• Embryonic folding - embryonic disc to a cylindrical form 

•  The embryo grows rapidly and folds around the umbilical vesicle. As the cephalic and caudal ends curve around the ends of the vesicle, the embryo becomes C-shaped, with the head and tail almost touching 

• Simultaneously, the lateral margins of the disc fold around the sides of the vesicle to form the ventral surface of the embryo. Lateral folding encloses a longitudinal channel, the primitive gut, which later becomes the digestive tract

Functions of the skin 

• Re

• Epidermis has five types of cells 

• Keratinocytes - majority of epidermal cells 

• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that divide and produce the keratinocytes found in the deepest layer of the epidermis called the stratum basal 

• Melanocytes - occur only in the stratum basale synthesize the brown to black pigment melanin that shields the DNA from ultraviolet radiation 

• Tactile discs - touch receptors 

• Dendritic cell - defends against microbes 

• Layers of epidermis 

• Stratum corneum - outermost layer consisting of dead flattened cells that provide protection against abrasion and water loss 

• Stratum lucidum A thin clear layer found only in thick skin such as the palms and soles of feet 

• Stratum granulosum - contains cells that begin to die and accumulate keratohyalin granules contributing to the formation of waterproof barrier 

• Stratum spinosum - layer of keratinocytes that provides strength and flexibility to skin 

• Stratum basale - deepest layer consisting of a single row of cells that are constantly dividing to form new cells 

• The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium 

• Tissues found in dermal layer of skin - epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue 

• Found in the dermis blood vessels, cutaneous glands, and nerve endings 

• Epidermal ridges - downward extensions of the epidermis at the dermis epidermis boundary 

• Dermal papillae - upward projections of the dermis at the dermis epidermis boundary 

• Hypodermis - Subcutaneous fat - hypodermis composed predominantly of adipose tissue serves as an energy reservoir and thermal insulation protects deeper tissue by absorbing pressure not uniformly distributed 

• structure that nourishes the hair cells is the dermal papilla.

•  pilus (hair) grows within a structure called the hair follicle.

• A hair is formed by mitotic cells in the matrix region of the hair follicle.

• three concentric regions of the hair from the outside to the inside are:

1. Cuticle: The outermost layer, made up of overlapping cells that protect the inner layers.

2. Cortex: The middle layer, which provides strength, color, and texture to the hair. It contains the pigment melanin.

3. Medulla: The innermost layer, which is present in some hairs and consists of loosely packed cells.

• Two layers of hair follicle: Epithelial root sheath and connective tissue root sheath

• piloerector muscles - Smooth muscle fibers attached to the connective tissue root sheath

•  eponychium is commonly called the cuticle

• Stages in the developmental cycle - anagen, catagen, telogen 

• glands found in skin - merocrine, sebaceous, ceruminous, apocrine gland 

• Apocrine glands - enlarge and shrink in phase with menstrual cycle 

• Where to cells join together at - desmosomes