Untitled Flashcards Set

Slide 1 Music Education

Lucy Green

• Born in 1957; an educational theorist and musicologist.

• Professor at University College London (UCL) since 1990.

• Researched popular music education and how musicians learn.

Lucy Green’s Book: How Popular Musicians Learn (2002)

• Focuses on differences between formal and informal music learning.

• Explores community music and situated learning (learning in real-life contexts).

History of Music Education in England

• 1500-1600: Music was common in daily life and the church. Musicians played for different fees.

• 1600-1700: Sheet music became available. Folk songs were widespread.

• 1700-1900: Middle- and upper-class families had music lessons. Folk music declined, but classical works united people.

• 1900-Present: Focus shifted to communal music-making, but few adults play music despite school education.

Music-Making vs. Music Listening

• More people listen to music than actively make it.

• Technology (recordings, internet) makes music more accessible.

• There’s a widening gap between professional musicians (who need large investments) and amateurs.

Distinction Between Music-Making & Listening (Lucy Green’s View)

• Music-making: Producing music (e.g., singing, playing an instrument).

• Music listening: Receiving music (e.g., listening to recordings).

• The line is blurry—people sing along at concerts or tap rhythms while listening.

Formal vs. Informal Music Education

Formal Music Education

• Structured lessons in schools, universities, and music institutions.

• Taught by professional teachers with a curriculum.

• Includes music notation, assessments, and certifications.

• Often focuses on classical music, but jazz and pop have been added over time.

• Issue: Many people stop playing music after formal education.

Informal Music Education

• Learning outside of formal institutions, through self-teaching or observation.

• Includes learning by ear, watching others, and peer/family support.

• Common in popular music learning.

• Can be combined with formal education in community music groups.

Community Music

• Inclusive, participatory music-making.

• Aims to empower people through music (Higgins & Willingham, 2017).

• Can be formal (choirs, orchestras) or informal (garage bands).

• Some professional musicians earn a living, while others play as a hobby.

UTSC Community Music Groups:

• String Orchestra, Concert Choir, Concert Band, and small ensembles.

• Music 303: A student-run club promoting informal music-making.

Situated Learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991)

• Learning happens in real-world settings, often through apprenticeship.

• In music, beginners start on the periphery (observing) and gradually become active members.

Genre Overview

• Genres shape instrumentation, tempo, form, and performance style.

• Classical Music Periods: Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, 20th/21st Century.

Slide 2 - Instruments & Music Making 

Sound

• Sound: General term covering natural sounds, urban noise, and music.

• Noise: Usually unpleasant or unwanted sounds (e.g., construction, white noise).

• Music: Organized sound that follows genre and form conventions.

• Examples of Sound, Noise, and Music:

  • Birds chirping, footsteps, typewriters (Sound)

  • White noise (Noise)

  • "Anthracite Fields" by Julia Wolfe, "Partita for 8 Voices" by Caroline Shaw (Music)

Acoustics & Sound Production

• Sound is vibration transmitted through air to our ears.

• Treble: High frequencies (e.g., trumpet, high voice, electronic hum).

• Bass: Low frequencies (e.g., tuba, subway rumble).

• Frequency: Number of sound vibrations per second (Hz).

  • Human hearing: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

• Pitch: Perceived highness/lowness of a sound, based on frequency.

• Tone: A sound with a definite pitch.

• Timbre: The quality or color of a sound.

Identifying Timbre

• Timbre = Tone Color (e.g., dark, bright, warm, cool).

• Related to Synaesthesia – associating colors with sound.

• Used to express musical ideas (arranging, orchestration, etc.).

Dynamics (Volume in Music)

• Loudness levels (Italian terms):

  • Forte (f): Loud

  • Piano (p): Soft

  • Fortissimo (ff): Very loud

  • Pianissimo (pp): Very soft

  • Niente (n): Silence

Instruments

Why Classify Instruments?

• Helps composers, arrangers, performers, and audiences understand instruments better.

• Classification Systems:

  • Orchestral Families (by design & sound production)

  • Hornbostel-Sachs System (by vibration source)

Orchestral Families:

1. Woodwinds: Air vibrates inside (e.g., flute, clarinet, saxophone, oboe, bassoon).

2. Brass: Lips buzz into a mouthpiece (e.g., trumpet, trombone, French horn, tuba).

3. Percussion: Struck, shaken, or scraped (e.g., drums, marimba, tambourine).

4. Strings: Vibrating strings (e.g., violin, guitar, harp, cello).

Other Instrument Families:

• Voice: Singing, speaking, rapping.

• Keyboards: Played using keys (e.g., piano, organ, accordion).

• Electronics: Sound produced or modified electronically (e.g., synthesizers, electric guitar).

Performance Techniques:

• Legato: Smooth, connected notes.

• Staccato: Short, detached notes.

• Trill: Alternating quickly between two notes.

• Glissando: Sliding between pitches.

• Vibrato: Slight pitch fluctuation for a richer sound.

Musicking (Christopher Small, 1998)

• Definition: Music is an activity, not an object.

• “To music” = Any form of participation in musical performance (performing, listening, composing, etc.).

• Everyone involved in music contributes to its meaning (not just composers and performers).

• Rejects the idea that music’s meaning is fixed in a written score.

• Music’s meaning is social – it connects individuals and communities.

Art Objects vs. Sound Objects

• Art Object: A work of art (e.g., a painting, sculpture).

• Sound Object: A musical work (e.g., a classical composition).

• Classical music is often seen as superior, but it only accounts for ~3% of music sales globally.

Musical Meaning & Communication

• Traditional communication model: Composer → Performer → Audience.

• Other pathways Small considers important: Audience ↔ Performer, Performer ↔ Composer, Audience ↔ Audience.

• Music is not isolated; it is part of human activity.

Postlude: Sample Mid-Term Questions

1. Which instrument do you hear in Scott Joplin’s "Maple Leaf Rag"?

   • A) Synthesizer

   • B) Piano ✅

   • C) Electric keyboard

   • D) Organ

2. Which Italian term means "soft"?

   • A) Forte (f)

   • B) Mezzo-forte (mf)

   • C) Mezzo-piano (mp)

   • D) Piano (p) ✅

3. What family does the trumpet belong to?

   • A) Woodwinds

   • B) Brass ✅

   • C) Percussion

   • D) Strings

4. Which instrument is NOT in a standard drum set?

   • A) Triangle ✅

   • B) Crash cymbal

   • C) Snare drum

   • D) Kick drum

5. Western musical "canon" typically refers to?

   • A) Blues

   • B) Jazz

   • C) Classical ✅

   • D) Rock and Pop

Slide 3 -  Instruments & Musicmaking CONTD 

Sound

Definitions

• Sound – Broad category including music, urban/nature sounds, sound effects.

• Noise – Often has a negative connotation (e.g., construction sounds, white noise).

• Music – Organized sound that follows genre and form conventions.

Key Concepts

• Acoustics – The science of sound production, transmission, and perception.

• Frequency – Measured in Hertz (Hz), higher frequencies = higher pitch.

  • Human hearing: 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz

• Pitch – How high or low a sound is perceived.

• Tone – A sound with a definite pitch.

• Timbre – The unique quality or "tone color" of a sound.

Listening Activity

• Identifying instruments by timbre alone.

• Comparing acoustic vs. electronic timbres.

• How do composers choose timbres to convey meaning?

Musical Dynamics (Volume)

• Soft to Loud:

  • Piano (p) – Soft

  • Mezzo-piano (mp) – Moderately soft

  • Mezzo-forte (mf) – Moderately loud

  • Forte (f) – Loud

  • Fortissimo (ff) – Very loud

  • Pianissimo (pp) – Very soft

  • Niente (n) – Silence

3. Instruments

Why Classify Instruments?

• Useful for composers, arrangers, and listeners.

• Helps understand orchestral families and sound production.

Instrument Classification Systems

Traditional Orchestral Families

1. Woodwinds – Air column vibrates (e.g., saxophone, clarinet, flute, oboe, bassoon).

2. Brass – Lips vibrate to produce sound (e.g., trumpet, trombone, tuba, French horn).

3. Percussion – Struck/shaken instruments (e.g., snare drum, xylophone, timpani).

4. Strings – Vibrating strings (e.g., violin, guitar, cello, harp).

Additional Families

5. Voice – Singing, speaking, rapping.

6. Keyboards – Sounded via keys (e.g., piano, organ, accordion).

7. Electronics – Electronically produced sound (e.g., synthesizer, electric guitar).

Hornbostel-Sachs System

• Aerophones – Air vibrates (e.g., flute, trumpet).

• Idiophones – Body vibrates (e.g., xylophone, triangle).

• Membranophones – Vibrating membrane (e.g., drums).

• Chordophones – Strings vibrate (e.g., violin, guitar).

• Electrophones – Electronic sound production (e.g., synthesizers).

Performance Techniques

• Woodwinds – Key clicks, multiphonics, flutter tonguing.

• Brass – Mutes (straight, cup, harmon, plunger).

• Percussion – Rolls, dead strokes, ghost strokes.

• Strings – Bowing (arco), plucking (pizzicato), vibrato, strumming.

Listening Examples

• Woodwinds: Take Five (1959) – Dave Brubeck

• Brass: Someday My Prince Will Come (1961) – Miles Davis

• Percussion: Águas de Março (1972) – Antonio Carlos Jobim

• Strings: Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (1787) – Mozart

• Voice: Partita for 8 Voices (2012) – Caroline Shaw

• Keyboards: Hymn to Freedom (1962) – Oscar Peterson

• Electronics: I of IV (1966) – Pauline Oliveros

4. Guest Musicians

• Émilie Fortin – Woodwind specialist.

• Maxime Despax – Brass specialist.

5. Musicking (Christopher Small, 1998)

Key Ideas

• Music is an activity, not an object.

• Musicking = Participating in music in any way (performing, listening, composing, dancing, etc.).

• Everyone involved in a performance contributes to its meaning (audience, ushers, roadies, etc.).

• Classical music is often seen as "the canon," but accounts for only ~3% of global music sales.

Sound Objects vs. Musical Meaning

• Traditional view: Music's meaning is in the written score.

• Small's view: Meaning comes from the performance and social interactions.

• Musical performances are encounters between people that establish relationships.

• Music is not autonomous; it connects to social and cultural contexts.

6. Postlude: Sample Mid-Term Questions

1. Which instrument is featured in Scott Joplin’s Maple Leaf Rag?

   • A. Synthesizer

   • B. Piano ✅

   • C. Electric keyboard

   • D. Organ

2. Which Italian term means "play softly"?

   • A. Forte (f)

   • B. Mezzo-forte (mf)

   • C. Mezzo-piano (mp)

   • D. Piano (p) ✅

3. Which family does the trumpet belong to?

   • A. Woodwinds

   • B. Brass ✅

   • C. Percussion

   • D. Strings

4. Which is NOT in a standard drum set?

   • A. Triangle ✅

   • B. Crash cymbal

   • C. Snare drum

   • D. Kick drum

5. What genre is considered part of the "canon" in Western music?

   • A. Blues

   • B. Jazz

   • C. Classical ✅

   • D. Rock and Pop

Slide 4 - Musical Time

• Music exists in time (unlike painting or literature).

• Venue affects how we experience time:

  • Concert halls: Lights off, movement restricted → controlled experience.

  • Art galleries: Lights on, movement free → viewer decides timing.

• We structure time in different ways in life:

  • Years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes.

  • Music measures even smaller units (fractions of a second!).

2. Tempo (Speed of Music)

• Tempo = Speed of a song (measured in beats per minute, bpm).

• Common tempo markings (Italian terms):

  • Largo – Very slow

  • Adagio – Slow

  • Andante – Medium-slow (walking pace)

  • Moderato – Moderate speed

  • Allegro – Fast

  • Presto – Very fast

• Tempo changes:

  • Accelerando (accel.) – Gradually getting faster.

  • Ritardando (rit.) – Gradually getting slower.

  • Rubato – Flexible tempo, at the performer’s discretion.

3. Beat & Rhythm

• Beat = The steady pulse of the music (e.g., tapping your foot).

• Rhythm = Pattern of sounds over time.

• Examples of rhythm in everyday life:

  • Heartbeat, walking, bird chirping, sirens, seasons.

• Musical rhythm is structured using:

  • Notes (sounds) and rests (silences).

  • Rhythmic patterns often break down into groups of 2s and 3s.

• Special rhythms:

  • Swing rhythm – Uneven note lengths (common in jazz).

  • Polyrhythm – Multiple rhythms at the same time.

  • Arhythmic – No clear rhythm.

4. Metre (Organizing Beats into Groups)

• Metre = How beats are grouped into repeating patterns.

• Time Signature = Two numbers (e.g., 4/4, 3/4) that show:

  • Top number: Beats per bar.

  • Bottom number: What kind of note gets the beat.

• Common metres:

  • Duple (2 beats per bar) → e.g., 2/4

  • Triple (3 beats per bar) → e.g., 3/4

  • Quadruple (4 beats per bar) → e.g., 4/4 (common time)

  • Quintuple (5 beats per bar) → e.g., 5/4

• Other metre-related terms:

  • Downbeat: First (strongest) beat in a bar.

  • Upbeat: Weak beat before the downbeat.

  • Backbeat: Emphasis on beats 2 & 4 (common in pop, rock, and R&B).

  • Syncopation: Playing off the beat to create tension.

  • Mixed Metre: Changing time signatures within a piece.

  • Ametric: No clear meter (free time).

Slide 5 - Musical Embodiment 

Tia DeNora

• Born in 1958

• Musicologist and sociologist

• Professor of Sociology of Music at the University of Exeter

• Fellow of the Yale Center for Cultural Sociology and the British Academy

• Published works on Beethoven, Adorno, musical consciousness, and musical well-being

Tia DeNora’s Music in Everyday Life

Publication Details:

• Title: Music in Everyday Life

• Year: 2000

• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Key Concepts:

• Musical self-structuration, self-programming, self-modulation, and self-regulation

• Musical embodiment and entrainment

• Agency and affect

Musical Embodiment

• Examines the relationship between bodies and material-cultural settings ("body-culture interaction")

• Investigates how the body is shaped by its environment rather than what the body is

• The body sets boundaries for culture, technology, and nature (Birke, 1992)

• Explored through several dualisms:

  • Mind/ body

  • Culture/ nature

  • Particular/ universal

Embodied Awareness

• A non-cognitive, instinctive response to the physical environment

• Examples:

  • We instinctively react to water differently depending on the context (drink/ avoid)

  • Our sleep-wake cycles align with daylight and darkness

• Semi-conscious; does not require theoretical knowledge

• Related to the concept of entrainment

Musical Entrainment

• Aligning bodily actions with rhythmic elements in music

• Examples:

  • Marching in time with music

  • Dancing to a beat

• Forms of bodily entrainment include:

  • Rhythmic movement in dance

  • Physiological regulation (heart rate, breathing)

  • Social coordination (leading/ following)

• Often occurs subconsciously

Case Study: Music in Aerobics Classes

Research Questions:

• How does music configure bodies over a 45-minute aerobics session?

• How does music afford agency?

• What music best sustains physical endurance?

Key Findings:

• Three main groups shape the music used in aerobics:

  • Music production companies: Create music tailored to fitness settings

  • Instructors: Curate playlists based on class structure

  • Class members: Actively interpret music to aid their performance

• Music as a structuring force:

  • Organizes bodily coordination and endurance

  • Aligns movement to aerobic grammar (tempo, intensity)

Phases of Aerobics Sessions & Music

1. Warm-Up:

   • Captures attention, initiates movement

   • Music provides transition from everyday life to aerobic mode

   • Slower tempo (e.g., I Will Survive – Gloria Gaynor, 117 bpm)

2. Pre-Core:

   • Marks transition to faster, more strenuous movement

   • Encourages entrainment to a consistent pulse

   • Higher tempo (e.g., Gangnam Style – Psy, 132 bpm)

3. Core:

   • Focus shifts from melody to rhythm

   • Encourages "flow state" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)

   • Instructors use short, motivating commands

   • Fast-paced instrumental tracks (e.g., Motivation Module – Trancercise Workout, 151 bpm)

4. Cool-Down & Floor Exercises:

   • Returns body to everyday reality

   • Slower, lyrical ballads aid transition (e.g., Purple Rain – Prince, 58 bpm)

Case Study: Music in the Neonatal Unit

• The womb provides a rhythmic “intrauterine symphony” (heartbeat, voice, fluid sounds)

• At birth, newborns face a chaotic soundscape in hospitals, disrupting homeostasis

• Music helps stabilize:

  • Breathing

  • Heart rate

  • Sleeping patterns

  • Stress levels

• Entrainment is key in supporting physiological regulation

• Other medical uses:

  • Surgery: Reduces stress hormones, lessens anesthesia needs

  • Pain management: Provides distraction

  • Respiratory therapy: Regulates breathing patterns

Music for Visual Media

Definition of ‘Media’

• Media = plural of medium (art forms, communication methods)

• Audiovisual (AV) Media: Combines sound and visual elements

  • Film, TV, video games, social media

  • Live media: Theatre, dance, circus

Functions of Music in Visual Media:

1. Setting Mood & Tone

   • Conveys character emotions (e.g., Jaws theme foreshadowing danger)

   • Creates irony (Pulp Fiction) or unease (The Shining)

2. Creating a Sense of Place & Time

   • Bagpipes in Braveheart evoke Scotland

   • Classical instrumentals in Bridgerton reinterpret modern pop music

3. Program Music & Film Scores

   • Music representing extramusical narratives (The Four Seasons – Vivaldi)

   • Film scores as modern program music (e.g., Star Wars – John Williams)

Specialized Musical Elements in Visual Media

• Main Title Theme: Recognizable opening music (Pokémon, Star Wars)

• Leitmotif: Recurring musical phrases linked to characters/events (The Imperial March – Star Wars)

• Underscore: Background music supporting dialogue/action (Interstellar – Hans Zimmer)

• Source Music (Diegetic Music): Heard by characters within the story (Guardians of the Galaxy soundtrack)

Mid-Term Test Information

• Date: Late February (TBD)

• Duration: 1 hour

• Weighting: 20% of final grade

• Format: 40 multiple-choice questions (0.5 points per question)

  • 18 questions on listening excerpts (title, composer, elements)

  • 12 questions on musical elements (genre, instruments, rhythm, metre, melody)

  • 10 questions on readings (Lucy Green, Christopher Small, Tia DeNora)

Sample Questions:

1. Which of the following is an example of musical entrainment?

   • (A) Composing a piece

   • (B) Training a cat to play piano

   • (C) Dancing in time with music ✅

   • (D) Training a piano tuner

2. What is a bpm?

   • (A) Quarter note

   • (B) 120 ✅

   • (C) 4/4

   • (D) Accelerando

3. Which of the following is NOT part of DeNora’s "intrauterine symphony"?

   • (A) Muffled sounds ✅

   • (B) Mother’s voice

   • (C) Heartbeat

   • (D) Orchestral instruments ✅

4. What is the term for music heard during film opening credits?

   • (A) Main Title Theme ✅

   • (B) Credits underscore

   • (C) Primary leitmotif

   • (D) Upbeat

5. What is underscore music called in theatre and dance?

   • (A) Incidental Music ✅

   • (B) Accidental Music

   • (C) Imperceptible Music

   • (D) Indivisible Music

Slide 6 - Melody 

Melody: History, Concepts, and Applications

History of European Music Notation

• Neumes evolved from mnemonic symbols to a more specific notation readable by sight.

• 10th-12th centuries: Neumes spaced to reflect melody rhythm.

• 12th century (Northern France): Neumes thickened at points for distinct notes.

• 14th-15th centuries: Neumatic notation used in English liturgical works and masses (Missa Virgo Parens Christi by Jacobus Barbireau).

• Five-line staff developed:

  • X-axis: Time

  • Y-axis: Pitch

  • Notes placed on/between lines to indicate pitch/duration.

  • Higher placement = Higher pitch

  • More horizontal space = Longer duration

  • Sharps (#) and flats (♭) modify pitch.

Modern Five-Line Music Notation

• Example: Happy Birthday (1893) by Patty and Mildred J. Hill.

• Notes and rests:

  • Note: A single tone of definite pitch.

  • Rest: A span of silence.

  • Pitch: Perceived sound quality based on frequency.

  • Letter names: C D E F G A B C.

• Duration values:

  • Eighth (0.5 beats)

  • Quarter (1 beat)

  • Half (2 beats)

  • Whole (4 beats)

Melodic Building Blocks

• Intervals: Distance between two notes.

  • 2nd: Step

  • 3rd and above: Leap

  • Octave: 8-note span, higher note = double frequency of lower note.

• Greek Interval Ratios:

  • Octave: 2:1

  • Fifth: 3:2

  • Fourth: 4:3

  • Second: 9:8

The Octave in Melodies

• Used in ascending/descending passages.

• Example recordings:

  • Over the Rainbow (1939) – Harold Arlen/Yip Harburg

  • Hymn to Freedom (1962) – Oscar Peterson

Scales

• A sequence of notes arranged by pitch.

• Types:

  • Chromatic: All 12 notes within an octave.

  • Major: Happy sound.

  • Minor: Sad sound.

  • Pentatonic: 5-note scale used in global music traditions.

  • Whole Tone: 6 notes, equal steps per octave.

  • Harmonic Minor: Middle Eastern, jazz, classical music.

• Example recordings:

  • Major: Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart), Maple Leaf Rag (Scott Joplin)

  • Minor: Ordo Virtutum (Hildegard von Bingen), Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)

  • Chromatic: Carmen, Habañera (Bizet), Rhapsody in Blue (Gershwin)

Greek Modes and Guido d’Arezzo

• Modes:

  • Ionian (Major - happy)

  • Dorian (Neutral)

  • Phrygian (Mysterious)

  • Lydian (Bright)

  • Mixolydian (Bluesy)

  • Aeolian (Minor - sad)

  • Locrian (Unstable)

• Guido d’Arezzo (991-1033):

  • Developed modern musical staff.

  • Created solfège (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti).

• Example recording: Do-Re-Mi (Sound of Music, 1959)

Melodic Concepts

• Range: Highest to lowest note span.

• Contour: Shape of a melody.

  • Ascending: e.g., Mehcinut (Jeremy Dutcher)

  • Descending: e.g., Habañera (Bizet)

• Melodic Motion:

  • Conjunct: Stepwise (e.g., Ode to Joy, Beethoven)

  • Disjunct: Leaps (e.g., Cello Suite No. 1, Bach)

  • Amelodic: Lacking melody (e.g., 4’33”, John Cage)

Mock Mid-Term Test

• Listening Section: 6 excerpts, each played twice, followed by 3 questions.

• Free Writing Section: Musical elements (genre, instruments, rhythm, metre, melody) and contexts (music education, musicking, embodiment, visual media).

Sample Questions

• Identify the scale used in a piece (e.g., Major, Minor, Chromatic).

• Describe the melodic motion (Conjunct vs. Disjunct).

• Define musical terms (e.g., syncopation, metre, arpeggio).

Answer Key

1. D, 2. C, 3. B, 4. A, 5. B, 6. B, 7. C, 8. C, 9. C, 10. D...